The Works of Philo Judaeus, the contemporary of Josephus, translated from the Greek by C. D. Yonge. Volume IV. London: Henry G. Bohn, Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library, 1854 to 1855.

Uncle Tom's Cabin. With Introductory Remarks by the Rev. J. Sherman. Printed in a large clear type. Illustra-

Wide, Wide World. By Elizabeth Wetherall. Illustrated with 10 highlyfinished Steel Engravings. 3s. Gd.

Bohn's Historical Library.

UNIFORM WITH THE STANDARD

Evelyn's Diary and Correspondence.

Illustrated with numerous Portraits, dc.

Pepys' Diary and Correspondence.

Edited by Lord Braybrooke. With important Additions, including numerous Letters. Illustrated with many Portraits.

Jesse's Memoirs of the Reign of the

Stuarts, including the Protectorate. With General Index. Upwards of 40 Portraits.

LIBRARY, AT OS. PER VOLUME.

Jesse's Memoirs of the Pretenders

and their Adherents. 6 Portraits.

Efugent's (Lord) Memorials of Hampden, his Party, and Times. 12 Portraits.

Strickland's (Agnes) Lives of the

Queens of England, from the Norman Conquest. From official records and authentic documents, private and public. Revised Edition. In 6 vols.

Bohn's Library of French. Memoirs.

UNIFORM WITH THE STANDARD LIBRARY, AT 3s. M. PER VOLUME.

Memoirs of Philip de Commine3,

containing the Histories of Louis XI. and Charles VIII., and of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. To which Is added. The Scandalous Chronicle, or Secret

History of Louis XI. Portraits. In Memoirs of the Duke of Sully, Prime Minister to Henry the Great. Portraits.

V.

Bohn's School and College Series.

UNIFORM WITH THE STANDARD LIBRARY.

Bass's Complete Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament. 2s. 6d.

New Testament (The) in Greek.

Griesbach's Text, with the various readings of Mill and Scholz at foot of page, and

Parallel References In the margin ; also a Critical Introduction and Chronological Tables. Two facsimiles of Greek Manu- Lexicon, 6s.

X.

Bonn's Illustrated Library.

UNIFORM WITH THE STANDARD LIBRARY, AT 5s. PER VOLUME (EXCEPTING THOSE MARKED otherwise).

Allen's Battles of the British Navy.

Revised and enlarged. Numerous fine Portrait*. In 2 vols.

Andersen's Danish legends and

Fairy Tales. With many Tales not in any other edition. Translated by Caroline Peachey. 120 Wood Engravings.

Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. In English Verse. By W. S. Rose. Twelve fine Engravings. In 2 vols.

Bechstein's Cage and Chamber Birds.

Including Sweet's Warblers. Enlarged edition. Numerous plates.

„* All other editions are abridged.

With the plates coloured. Is. Qd.

Bonomi's Nineveh and its Palaces.

New Edition, revised and considerably enlarged, both in matter and Plates, including a Full Account of the Assyrian Sculptures recently added to the National Collection. Upwards of 300 Engravings.

Butler's Hudibras. With Variorum Notes, a Biography, and a General Index. Edited by Henry (J. Bohn. Thirty beautiful Illustrations.

; or, further illustrated icith

Cattermole's Evenings at Haddon

Hall. 24 exquisite Engravings on Steel, from designs by himself, the Letterpress by the Baroness De Carabklla.

China, Pictorial, Descriptive, and

Historical, with some Account of Ava and the Burmese, Siam, and Anam. Nearly 100 Illustrations. Craik's (G. L.) Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties, illustrated by Anecdotes and Memoirs. Revised Edition. With numerous Portraits.

Cruikshank's Three Courses and a

Dessert. A Series of Tales, with 60 humorous Illustrations by Cruilcshank,

Dante. Translated by I. C. Wpjgttt, M.A. New Edition, carefully revised. Portrait and U Illustrations on Steel, after F'laxman.

Didron's History of Christian Art ;

or, Christian Iconography. From the French. Cpvjards of 150 beautiful outline Engravings. Vol. I. (Mons. Didron has not yet written the second volume.)

Flaxman's Lectures on Sculpture.

Numerous Illustrations. 6s.

Gil Bias, The Adventures of. 24

Engravings on Steel, after Smirke, and 10 Etchings by George Uruikshank. (612

Grimm's Gammer Grethel ; or, German Fairy Tales and Popular Stories. Translated by P^dgar Taylor. Numerous Woodcuts by Cruikshank. 3s. 6d.

Holbein's Dance of Death, and Bible

Cuts. Upwards of 150 subjects, beautifully engraved in facsimile, with Introduction and Descriptions by the late Francis Douce and Dr. T. F. Diemn.

Eowitt's (Mary) Pictorial Calendar

of the Seasons. Embodying the whole of Aiken's Calendar of Nature. Upwards of 100 Engravings.

i (Mary and William) Stories

of English and Foreign Life. Twenty beautiful Engravings.

Hunt's (Leigh) Book for a Corner.

Eighty extremely beautiful Engravings.

India, Pictorial, Descriptive, and

Historical, from the Earliest Times to the Present. Upwards of 100 fine Engravings on Wood, and a .Map.

Jesse's Anecdotes of Dogs. New Edition, with large additions. Numerous fine Woodcuts after Harvey, Bewick.and others.

• ; or, with the addition of 34

highly-finished Steel Engravings after Cooper, Landseer, Jtc. Is. 6<i.

Kitto's Scripture Lands and Biblical

Atlas. 21 Maps, beautifully engraved on

Steel, with a Consulting Index. ' ; or, with the maps coloured,

Is. Gd. Krummacher's Parables. Translated

from the German. Forty Illustrations by

Clayton, engraved by Dalziel.

Lindsay's (Lord) Letters on Egypt,

Edom, and the Holy Land. New Edition, enlarged. Thirty-six beautiful Engravings, and 2 Maps.

Lodge's Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain, with Memoirs. two Hundred and Forty Portrait, beautifully engraved on Steel. 8 vols.

WORKS

THE CONTEMPORARY OF JOSEPHUS,

TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK,

VOL. IV.

LONDON : HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COYENT GARDEN.

HAnDON, BROTHERS, AND CO., PRINTERS, CASTLE STREET, F1NSBURY.

CONTENTS.

Packs On a Contemplative Life, or on the Virtues of Suppliants 1

On the Virtues and on the Office of Ambassadors.

Addressed to Caius 99

Concerning the World 180

The Fragments of the Lost Works 210

Fragments extracted from the Parallels of John of Damascus 242

Fragments from a Monkish Manuscript 257

Fragments preserved by Antonius 271

Fragments from an Anonymous Collection in the Bodleian Library at Oxford 276

Fragments from an Unpublished Manuscript in the

Library of the French King 277

A Volume of Questions, and Solutions to those Questions, which arise in Genesis 284

Index to the Four Volumes ... 465

ON THE VIRTUES OF SUPPLIANTS.

I. Having mentioned the Essenes, who in all respects selected for their admiration and for their especial adoption the practical course of life, and who excel in all, or what perhaps may be a less unpopular and invidious thing to say, in most of its parts, I will now proceed, in the regular order of my subject, to speak of those who have embraced the speculative life, and I will say what appears to me to be desirable to be said on the subject, not drawing any fictitious statements from my own head for the sake of improving the appearance of that side of the question which nearly all poets and essayists are much accustomed to do in the scarcity of good actions to extol, but with the greatest simplicity adhering strictly to the truth itself, to which I know well that even the most eloquent men do not keep close in their speeches.

Nevertheless we must make the endeavour and labour to attain to this virtue ; for it is not right that the greatness of the virtue of the men should be a cause of silence to those who do not think it right that anything which is creditable should be suppressed in silence ; but the deliberate intention of the philosopher is at once dibplayed from the appellation given to them ; for with strict regard to etymology, they are called therapeutas and therapeutrides,* either because they profess an art of medicine more excellent than that in general use in cities (for that only heals bodies, but the other heals souls which are under the mastery of terrible and almost incurable diseases, which pleasures and appetites, fears and griefs, and covetousness, and follies, and injustice, and all the rest of the innumerable multitude of other passions and vices, have inflicted upon them), or else because they have been instructed by nature and the sacred laws to serve the living God, who is * From Oepairivw, " to heal." VOL. IV. B

superior to the good, and more simple than the one, and more ancient than the unit ; with whom, however, who is there of those who profess piety that we can possibly compare ? Can we compare those who honour the elements, earth, water, air, and fire? to whom different nations have given different names, calling fire Hephaestus, I imagine because of its kindling,* and the air Hera, I imagine because of its being raised up,f and raised aloft to a great height, and water Poseidon, probably because of its being drinkable, J and the earth Demeter, because it appears to be the mother § of all plants and of all animals.

But these names are the inventions of sophists : but the elements are inanimate matter, and immovable by any power of their own, being subjected to the operator on them to receive from him every land of shape or distinctive quality which he chooses to give them. But what shall we say of those men who worship the perfect things made of them, the sun, the moon, and the other stars, planets, or fixed-stars, or the whole heaven, or the universal world? And yet even they do not owe their existence to themselves, but to some creator whose knowledge has been most perfect, both in mind and degree. What, again, shall we say of the demi-gods? This is a matter which is perfectly ridiculous : for how can the same man be both mortal and immortal, even if we leave out of the question the fact that the origin of the birth of all these beings is liable to reproach, as being full of youthful intemperance, which its authors endeavour with great profanity to impute to blessed and divine natures, as if they, being madly in love with mortal women, had connected themselves with them ; while we know gods to be free from all participation in and from all influence of passion, and completely happy.

Again, what shall we say of those who worship carved works and images ? the substances of which, stone and wood, were only a little while before perfectly destitute of shape,

The Greek is i£,aipic, as if "H^aiffroe were also derived from uTTTOfiai, being akin to dip)). ,

t The Greek word is a'iptoOai, to which "Hpa has some similarity in sound.

X The Greek word is tcotov, derived from 3rd sing. perf. pass, of irlvut 7Tf7rorai, from the 2nd sing, of which nkiroaai, ttoguSwv may probably be derived.

§ The Greek word is nr)Ti)p, evidently the root of A?;;t?jrj)p.

liefore the stone-cutters or wood-cutters hewed them out of the kindred stuff around them, while the remainder of the material, their near relation and brother as it were, is made into ewers, or foot-pans, and other common and dishonoured vessels, which are employed rather for uses of darkness than for such as will bear the light ; for as for the customs of the Egyptians, it is not creditable even to mention them, for they have introduced irrational beasts, and those not merely such as are domestic and tame, but even the most ferocious of wild beasts to share the honours of the gods, taking some out of each of the elements beneath the moon, as the lion from among the animals which live on the earth, the crocodile from among those which live in the water, the kite from such as traverse the air, and the Egyptian iris. And though they actually see that these animals are born, and that they are in need of food, and that they are insatiable in voracity and full of all sorts of filth, and moreover poisonous and devourers of men, and liable to be destroyed by all kinds of diseases, and that in fact they are often destroyed not only, by natural deaths, but also by violence, still they, civilised men, worship these untameable and ferocious beasts ; though rational men, they worship irrational beasts ; though they have a near relationship to the Deity, they worship creatures unworthy of being compared even to some of the beasts ; though appointed as rulers and masters, they worship creatures which are by nature subjects and slaves.

II. But since these men infect not only their fellow countrymen, but also all that come near them with folly, let them remain uncovered, being mutilated in that most indispensable of all the outward senses, namely, sight. I am speaking here not of the sight of the body, but of that of the soul, by which alone truth and falsehood are distinguished from one another. But the therapeutic sect of mankind, being continually taught to see without interruption, may well aim at obtaining a sight of the living God, and may pass by the sun, which is visible to the outward sense, and never leave this order which conducts to perfect happiness. But they who apply themselves to this kind of worship, not because they are influenced to do so by custom, nor by the advice or recommendation of any particular persons, but because they are carried away by a certain heavenly love, give way to enthusiasm, behaving like so many revellers in bacchanalian or corybantiau

mysteries, until they see the object which they have been earnestly desiring.

Then, because of their anxious desire for an immortal and blessed existence, thinking that their mortal life has already come to an end, they leave their possessions to their sons or daughters, or perhaps to other relations, giving them up their inheritance with willing cheerfulness ; and those who know no relations give their property to their companions or friends, for it followed of necessity that those who have acquired the wealth which sees, as if ready prepared for them, should be willing to surrender that wealth which is blind to those who themselves* also are still blind in their minds.

The Greeks celebrate Anaxagoras and Democritus, because they, being smitten with a desire for philosophy, allowed all their estates to be devoured by cattle. I myself admire the men who thus showed themselves superior to the attractions of money ; but how much better were those who have not permitted cattle to devour their possessions, but have supplied the necessities of mankind, of their own relations and friends, and have made them rich though they were poor before ? For surely that was inconsiderate conduct (that I may avoid saying that any action of men whom Greece has agreed to admire was a piece of insanity) ; but this is the act of sober men, and one which has been carefully elaborated by exceeding prudence.

For what more can enemies do than ravage, and destroy, and cut down all the trees in the country of their antagonists, that they may be forced to submit by reason of the extent to which they are oppressed by want of necessaries? And yet Democritus did this to his own blood relations, inflicting artificial want and penury upon them, not perhaps from any hostile intention towards them, but because he did not foresee and provide for what was advantageous to others. How much better and more admirable are they who, without having any inferior eagerness for the attainment of philosophy, have nevertheless preferred magnanimity to carelessness, and, giving presents from their possessions instead of destroying them, so as to be able to benefit others and themselves also, have made others happy by imparting to them of the abundance of their wealth, and themselves by the study of philosophy ? For au undue care for money and wealth causes great waste

ON A CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE. O

of time, and it is proper to economise time, since, according to the saying of the celebrated physician Hippocrates, life is short but art long. And this is what Homer appears to me to imply figuratively in the Iliad, at the beginning of the thirteenth book, by the following lines, —

" The Mysian close-fighting bands, And dwellers on the Scythian lands, Content to seek their humble fare From milk of cow and milk of mare, The justest of mankind."

As if great anxiety concerning the means of subsistence and the acquisition of money engendered injustice by reason of the inequality which it produced, while the contrary disposition and pursuit produced justice by reason of its equality, according to which it is that the wealth of nature is defined, and is superior to that which exists only in vain opinion.

When, therefore, men abandon their property without being influenced by any predominant attraction, they flee without even turning their heads back again, deserting their brethren, their children, their wives, their parents, their numerous families, their affectionate bands of companions, their native lands in which they have been born and brought up, though long familiarity is a most attractive bond, and one very well able to allure any one. And they depart, not to another city as those do who entreat to be purchased from those who at present possess them, being either unfortunate or else worthless servants, and as such seeking a change of masters rather than endeavouring to procure freedom (for every city, even that which is under the happiest laws, is full of indescribable tumults, and disorders, and calamities, which no one would submit to who had been even for a moment under the influence of wisdom), but they take up their abode outside of walls, or gardens, or solitary lands, seeking for a desert place, not because of any ill-natured misanthropy to which they have learnt to devote themselves, but because of the associations with people of wholly dissimilar dispositions to which they would otherwise be compelled, and which they know to be unprofitable and mischievous.

III. Now this class of persons may be met with in many places, for it was fitting that both Greece and the country

of the barbarians should partake of whatever is perfectly good ; and there is the greatest number of such men in Egypt, in every one of the districts, or nomi as they are called, and especially around Alexandria ; and from all quarters those who are the best of these therapeutse proceed on their pilgrimage to some most suitable place as if it were their country, which is beyond the Mareotic lake, lying in a somewhat level plain a little raised above the rest, being suitable for their purpose by reason of its safety and also of the fine temperature of the air.

For the houses built in the fields and the villages which surround it on all sides give it safety ; and the admirable temperature of the air proceeds from the continual breezes which come from the lake which falls into the sea, and also from the sea itself in the neighbourhood, the breezes from the sea being light, and those which proceed from the lake which falls into the sea being heavy, the mixture of which produces a most healthy atmosphere.

But the houses of these men thus congregated together are very plain, just giving shelter in respect of the two things most important to be provided against, the heat of the sun, and the cold from the open air ; and they did not live near to one another as men do in cities, for immediate neighbourhood to others would be a troublesome and unpleasant thing to men who have conceived an admiration for, and have determined to devote themselves to, solitude ; and, on the other hand, they did not live very far from one another on account of the fellowship which they desire to cultivate, and because of the desirableness of being able to assist one another if they should be attacked by robbers.

And in every house there is a sacred shrine which is called the holy place, and the monastery in which they retire by themselves and perform all the mysteries of a holy life, bringing in nothing, neither meat, nor drink, nor anything e)se which is indispensable towards supplying the necessities of the body, but studying in that place the laws and the sacred oracles of God enunciated by the holy prophets, and hymns, and psalms, and all kinds of other things by reason of which knowledge and piety are increased and brought to perfection.

Therefore they always retain an imperishable recollection of God, so that not even in their dreams is any other object ever

presented to their eyes except the beauty of the divine virtues and of the divine powers. Therefore many persons speak in their sleep, divulging and publishing the celebrated doctrines of the sacred philosophy. And they are accustomed to pray twice every day, at morning and at evening ; when the sun is rising entreating God that the happiness of the coming day may be real happiness, so that their minds may be filled with heavenly light, and when the sun is setting they pray that their soul, being entirely lightened and relieved of the burden of the outward senses, and of the appropriate object of these outward senses, may be able to trace out truth existing in its own consistory and council chamber. And the interval between morning and evening is by them devoted wholly to meditation on and to practice of virtue, for they take up the sacred scriptures and philosophise concerning them, investigating the allegories of their national philosophy, since they look upon their literal expressions as symbols of some secret meaning of nature, intended to be conveyed in those figurative expressions.

They have also writings of ancient men, who having been the founders of one sect or another have left behind them many memorials of the allegorical system of writing and explanation, whom they take as a kind of model, and imitate the general fashion of their sect ; so that they do not occupy themselves solely in contemplation, but they likewise compose psalms and hymns to God in every kind of metre and melodv imaginable, which they of necessity arrange in more dignified rhythm. Therefore, during six days, each of these individuals, retiring into solitude by himself, philosophises by himself in one of the places called monasteries, never going outside the threshold of the outer court, and indeed never even looking out.

But on the seventh day they all come together as if to meet in a sacred assembly, and they sit down in order according to their ages with all becoming gravity, keeping their hands inside their garments, having their right hand between their chest and their dress, and the left hand down by their side, close to their flank ; and then the eldest of them who has the most profound learning in their doctrines comes forward and speaks with steadfast look and with steadfast voice, with great powers of reasoning, and great prudence, not making an

exhibition of his oratorical powers like the rhetoricians of old, or the sophists of the present day, but investigating with great pains, and explaining with minute accuracy the precise meaning of the laws, which sits, not indeed at the tips of their ears, but penetrates through their hearing into the soul, and remains there lastingly ; and all the rest listen in silence to the praises which he bestows upon the law, showing their assent only by nods of the head, or the eager look of the eyes.

And this common holy place to which they all come together on the seventh day is a twofold circuit, being separated partly into the apartment of the men, and partly into a chamber for the women, for women also, in accordance with the usual fashion there, form a part of the audience, having the same feelings of admiration as the men, and having adopted the same sect with equal deliberation and decision ; and the wall which is between the houses rises from the ground three or four cubits upwards, like a battlement, and the upper portion rises upwards to the roof without any opening, on two accounts ; first of all, in order that the modesty which is so becoming to the female sex may be preserved, and secondly, that the women may be easily able to comprehend what is said being seated within earshot, since there is then nothing which can possibly intercept the voice of him who is speaking.

IV. And these expounders of the law, having first of all laid down temperance as a sort of foundation for the soul to rest upon, proceed to build up other virtues on this foundation, and no one of them may take any meat or drink before the setting of the sun, since they judge that the work of philosophising is one which is worthy of the light, but that the care for the necessities of the body is suitable only to darkness, on which account they appropriate the day to the one occupation, and a brief portion of the night to the other; and some men, in whom there is implanted a more fervent desire of knowledge, can endure to cherish a recollection of their food for three days without even tasting it, and some men are so delighted, and enjoy themselves so exceedingly when regaled by wisdom which supplies them with her doctrines in all possible wealth and abundance, that they can even hold out twice as great a length of time, and will scarcely at the end of six days taste even necessary food, being accustomed, as they say that grass

hoppers are, to feed on air, their song, as I imagine, malting their scarcity tolerable to them.

And they, looking upon the seventh day as one of perfect holiness and a most complete festival, have thought it worthy of a most especial honour, and on it, after taking due care of their soul, they tend their bodies also, giving them, just as they do to their cattle, a complete rest from their continual labours ; and they eat nothing of a costly character, but plain bread and a seasoning of salt, which the more luxurious of them do further season with hyssop ; and their drink is water from the spring ; for they oppose those feelings which nature has made mistresses of the human race, namely, hunger and thirst, giving them nothing to flatter or humour them, but only such useful things as it is not possible to exist without. On this account they eat only so far as not to be hungry, and they drink just enough to escape from thirst, avoiding all satiety, as an enemy of and a plotter against both soul and body.

And there are two kinds of covering, one raiment and the other a house : we have already spoken of their houses, that they are not decorated with any ornaments, but run up in a hurry, being only made to answer such purposes as are absolutely necessary ; and in like manner their raiment is of the most ordinary description, just stout enough to ward off cold and heat, being a cloak of some shaggy hide for winter, and a thin mantle or linen shawl in the summer; for in short they practise entire simplicity, looking upon falsehood as the foundation of pride, but truth as the origin of simplicity, and upon truth and falsehood as standing in the light of fountains, for from falsehood proceeds every variety of evil and wickedness, and from truth there flows every imaginable abundance of good things both human and divine.

V. I wish also to speak of their common assemblies, and their very cheerful meetings at convivial parties, setting them in opposition and contrast to the banquets of others, for others, when they drink strong wine, as if they had been drinking not wine but some agitating and maddening kind of liquor, or even the most formidable thing which can be imagined for driving a man out of his natural reason, rage about and tear things to pieces like so many ferocious dogs, and rise up and attack one another, biting and gnawing each other's noses, and

ears, and fingers, and other parts of their body, so as to give an accurate representation of the story related about the Cyclops and the companions of Ulysses, who ate, as the poet says, fragments of human flesh,* and that more savagely than even he himself ; for he was only avenging himself on those whom he conceived to be his enemies, but they were ill-treating their companions and friends, and sometimes even their actual relations, while having the salt and dinner-table before them, at a time of peace perpetrating actions inconsistent with peace, like those which are done by men in gymnastic contests, debasing the proper exercises of the body as coiners debase good money, and instead of athletes (aOX^raT) becoming miserable men {a&Xioi), for tthat is the name which properly belongs to them.

For that which those men who gain victories in the Olympic games, when perfectly sober in the arena, and having all the Greeks for spectators do by day, exerting all their skill for the purpose of gaining victory and the crown, these men with base designs do at convivial entertainments, getting drunk by night, in the hour of darkness, when soaked in wine, acting without either knowledge, or art, or skill, to the insult, and injury, and great disgrace of those who are subjected to their violence.

And if no one were to come like an umpire into the middle of them, and part the combatants, and reconcile them, they would continue the contest with unlimited licence, striving to kill and murder one another, and being killed and murdered on the spot; for they do not suffer less than they inflict, though out of the delirious state into which they have worked themselves they do not feel what is done to them, since they have filled themselves with wine, not, as the comic poet says, to the injury of their neighbour, but to their own. Therefore those persons who a little while before came safe and sound to the banquet, and in friendship for one another, do presently afterwards depart in hostility and mutilated in their bodies.

And some of these men stand in need of advocates and judges, and others require surgeons and physicians, and the help which may be received from them. Others again who seem to be a more moderate kind of feasters when they have drunk unmixed wine as if it were mandragora, boil over as it were, and lean on their left elbow, and turn their heads on

one side with their breath redolent of their wine, till at last they sink into profound slumber, neither seeing nor hearing anything, as if they had but one single sense, and that the most slavish of all, namely, taste. And I know some persons who, when they are completely filled with wine, before they are wholly overpowered by it, begin to prepare a drinking party for the next day by a kind of subscription and picnic contribution, conceiving a great part of their present delight to consist in the hope of future drunkenness ; and in this manner they exist to the very end of their lives, without a house and without a home, the enemies of their parents, and of their wives, and of their children, and the enemies of their country, and the worst enemies of all to themselves. For a debauched and profligate life is apt to lay snares for every one.

VI. And perhaps some people may be inclined to approve of the arrangement of such entertainments which at present prevails everywhere, from an admiration of, and a desire of imitating, the luxury and extravagance of the Italians which both Greeks and barbarians emulate, making all their preparations with a view to show rather than to real enjoyment, for they use couches called triclinia, and sofas all round the table made of tortoiseshell, and ivory, and other costly materials, most of which are inlaid with precious stones ; and coverlets of purple embroidered with gold and silver thread ; and others brocaded in flowers of every kind of hue and colour imaginable to allure the sight, and a vast array of drinking cups arrayed according to each separate description ; for there are bowls, and vases, and beakers, and goblets, and all kinds of other vessels wrought with the most exquisite skill, their clean cups and others finished with the most elaborate refinement of skilful and ingenious men ; and well shaped slaves of the most exquisite beauty, ministering, as if they had come not more for the purpose of serving the guests than of delighting the eyes of the spectators by their mere appearance.

Of these slaves, some, being still boys, pour out the wine ; and others more fully grown pour water, being carefully washed and rubbed down, with their faces anointed and pencilled, and the hair of their heads admirably plaited and curled and wreathed in delicate knots ; for they have very long hair, being either completely unshorn, or else having only the hair on their foreheads cut at the end so as to make them of an equal

length all round, being accurately sloped away so as to represent a circular line, and being clothed in tunics of the most delicate texture, and of the purest white, reaching in front down to the lower part of the knee, and behind to a little below the calf of the leg, and drawing up each side with a gentle doubling of the fringe at the joinings of the tunics, raising undulations of the garment as it were at the sides, and widening them at the hollow part of the side.

Others, again, are young men just beginning to show a beard on their youthful chins, having been, for a short time, the sport of the profligate debauchees, and being prepared with exceeding care and diligence for more painful services ; being a kind of exhibition of the excessive opulence of the giver of the feast, or rather, to say the truth, of their thorough ignorance of all propriety, as those who are acquainted with , them well know.

Besides all these things, there is an infinite variety of sweetmeats, and delicacies, and confections, about which bakers and cooks and confectioners labour, considering not the taste, which is the point of real importance, so as to make the food palatable to that, but also the sight, so as to allure that by the delicacy of the look of their viands. Accordingly, seven tables, and often more, are brought in, full of every kind of delicacy which earth, and sea, and rivers, and air produce, all procured with great pains, and in high condition, composed of terrestrial, and acquatic, and flying creatures, every one of which is different both in its mode of dressing and in its seasoning.

And that no description of thing existing in nature may be omitted, at the last dishes are brought in full of fruits, besides those which are kept back for the more luxurious portion of the entertainment, and for what is called the dessert ; and afterwards some of the dishes are carried away empty from the insatiable greediness of those at table, who, gorging themselves like cormorants, devour all the delicacies so completely that they gnaw even the bones, which some left half devoured after all that they contained has been torn to pieces and spoiled. And when they are completely tired with eating, having their bellies filled up to their very throats, but their desires still unsatisfied, being fatigued with eating they turn their heads round in every direction, scanning everything with their eyes and with their nostrils, examining the richness and the number

of the dishes with the first, and the steam which is sent up by them with the second.

Then, when they are thoroughly sated both with the sight and with the scent, these senses again prompt their owners to eat, praising in no moderate terms both the entertainment itself and the giver of it, for its costliness and magnificence. However, why need I dwell with prolixity on these matters, which are already condemned by the generality of more moderate men as inflaming the passions, the diminution of which is desirable ? For any one in his senses would pray for the most unfortunate of all states, hunger and thirst, rather than for a most unlimited abundance of meat and drink at such banquets as these.

VII. Now of the banquets among the Greeks the two most celebrated and most remarkable are those at which Socrates also was present, the one in the house of Callias, when, after Autolycus had gained the crown of victory, he gave a feast in honour of the event, and the other in the house of Agathon, which was thought worthy of being commemorated by men who were imbued with the true spirit of philosophy both in their dispositions and in their discourses, Plato and Xenophon, for they recorded them as events worthy to be had in perpetual recollection, looking upon it that future generations would take them as models for a well managed arrangement of future banquets ; but nevertheless even these, if compared with the banquets of the men of our time who have embraced the contemplative system of life, will appear ridiculous. Each description, indeed, has its own pleasures, but that recorded by Xenophon is the one the delights of which are most in accordance with human nature, for female harp-players, and dancers, and conjurors, and jugglers, and men who do ridiculous things, who pride themselves much on their powers of jesting and of amusing others, and many other species of more cheerful relaxation, are brought forward at it. But the entertainment recorded by Plato is almost entirely connected with love ; not that of men madly desirous or fond of women, or of women furiously in love with men, for these desires are accomplished in accordance with a law of nature, but with that love which is felt by men for one another, differing only in respect of age ; for if there is anything in the account of that banquet elegantly said in praise of genuine love and heavenly Venus, it is

introduced merely for the sake of making a neat speech ; for the greater part of the book is occupied by common, vulgar, promiscuous love, which takes away from the soul courage, that which is the most serviceable of all virtues both in war and in peace, and which engenders in it instead the female disease, and renders men men-women, though they ought rather to be carefully trained in all the practices likely to give men valour.

And having corrupted the age of boys, and having metamorphosed them and removed them into the classification and character of women, it has injured their lovers also in the most important particulars, their bodies, their souls, and their properties ; for it follows of necessity that the mind of a lover of boys must be kept on the stretch towards the objects of his affection, and must have no acuteness of vision for any other object, but must be blinded by its desire as to all other objects private or common, and must so be wasted away, more especially if it fails in its objects. Moreover, the man's property must be diminished on two accounts, both from the owner's" neglect and from his expenses for the beloved object.

There is also another greater evil which affects the whole people, and which grows up alongside of the other, for men who give into such passions produce solitude in cities, and a scarcity of the best kind of men, and barrenness, and unproductiveness, inasmuch as they are imitating those farmers who are unskilful in agriculture, and who, instead of the deep-soiled champaign country, sow briny marshes, or stony and rugged districts, which are not calculated to produce crops of any kind, and which only destroy the seed which is put into them. I pass over in silence the different fabulous fictions, and the stories of persons with two bodies, who having originally been stuck to one another by amatory influences, are subsequently separated like portions which have been brought together and are disjoined again, the harmony having been dissolved by which they were held together ; for all these things are very attractive, being able by "the novelty of their imagination to allure the ears, but they are despised by the disciples of Moses, who in the abundance of their wisdom have learnt from their earliest infancy to love truth, and also continue to the end of their lives impossible to be deceived.

VIII. But since the entertainments of the greatest celebrity

are full of such trifling and folly, bearing conviction in themselves, if any one should think fit not to regard vague opinion and the character which has been commonly handed down concerning them as feasts which have gone off with the most eminent success, I will oppose to them the entertainments of those persons who have devoted their whole life and themselves to the knowledge and contemplation of the affairs of nature in accordance with the most sacred admonitions and precepts of the prophet Moses.

In the first place, these men assemble at the end of seven weeks, venerating not only the simple week of seven days, but also its multiplied power, for they know it to be pure and always virgin ; and it is a prelude and a kind of fore feast of the greatest feast, which is assigned to the number fifty, the most holy and natural of numbers, being compounded of the power of the right-angled triangle, which is the principle of the origination and condition of the whole.

Therefore when they come together clothed in white garments, and joyful with the most exceeding gravity, Avhen some one of the ephemereutas (for that is the appellation which they are accustomed to give to those who are employed in such ministrations), before they sit down to meat standing in order in a row, and raising their eyes and their hands to heaven, the one because they have learnt to fix their attention on what is worth looking at, and the other because they are free from the reproach of all impure gain, being never polluted under any pretence whatever by any description of criminality which can arise from any means taken to procure advantage, they pray to God that the entertainment may be acceptable, and welcome, and pleasing ; and after having offered up these prayers the elders sit down to meat, still observing the order in which they were previously arranged, for they do not look on those as elders who are advanced in years and very ancient, but in some cases they esteem those as very young men, if they have attached themselves to this sect only lately, but those whom they call elders are those who from their earliest infancy have grown up and arrived at maturity in the speculative portion 01 philosophy, which is the most beautiful and most divine part of it.

And the women also share in this feast, the greater part of v\hom, though old, are virgins in respect of their purity (not

indeed through necessity, as some of the priestesses among the Greeks are, who have been compelled to preserve their chastity more than they would have done of their own accord), but out of an admiration for and love of wisdom, with which they are desirous to pass their lives, on account of which they are indifferent to the pleasures of the body, desiring not a mortal but an immortal offspring, which the soul that is attached to God is alone able to produce by itself and from itself, the Father having sown in it rays of light appreciable only by the intellect, by means of wnich it will be able to perceive the doctrines of wisdom.

IX. And the order in which they sit down to meat is a divided one, the men sitting on the right hand and the women apart from them on the left ; and in case any one by chance suspects that cushions, if not very costly ones, still at all events of a tolerably soft substance, are prepared for men who are well born and well bred, and contemplators of philosophy, he must know that they have nothing but rugs of the coarsest materials, cheap mats of the most ordinary kind of the papyrus of the land, piled up on the ground and projecting a little near the elbow, so that the feasters may lean upon them, for they relax in a slight degree the Lacedaemonian rigour of life, and at all times and in all places they practise a liberal, gentlemanlike kind of frugality, hating the allurements of pleasure with all their might.

And they do not use the ministrations of slaves, looking upon the possession of servants or slaves to be a thing absolutely and wholly contrary to nature, for nature has created all men free, but the injustice and covetousness of some men who' prefer inequality, that cause of all evil, having subdued some, has given to the more powerful authority over those who are weaker.

Accordingly in this sacred entertainment there is, as I have said, no slave, but free men minister to the guests, performing the offices of servants, not under compulsion, nor in obedience to any imperious commands, but of their own voluntary free will, with all eagerness and promptitude anticipating all orders, for they are not any chance free men who are appointed to perform these duties, but young men who are selected from their order with all possible care on account of their excellence, acting as virtuous and well-born youths ought

ON A CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE. IT

to act who are eager to attain to the perfection of virtue, and who, like legitimate sons, with affectionate rivalry minister to their fathers and mothers, thinking their common parents more closely connected with them than those who are related by blood, since in truth to men of right principles there is nothing more nearly akin than virtue ; and they come in to perform their service ungirdled, and with their tunics let down, in order that nothing which bears any resemblance to a slavish appearance may be introduced into this festival

I know well that some persons will laugh when they hear this, but they who laugh will be those who do things worthy of weeping and lamentation. And in those days wine is not introduced, but only the clearest water; cold water for the generality, and hot water for those old men who are accustomed to a luxurious life. And the table, too, bears nothing which has blood, but there is placed upon it bread for food and salt for seasoning, to which also hyssop is sometimes added as an extra sauce for the sake of those who are delicate in their eating, for just as right reason commands the priest to offer up sober sacrifices, so also these men are commanded to live sober lives, for wine is the medicine of folly, and costly seasonings and sauces excite desire, which is the most insatiable of all beasts.

X. These, then, are the first circumstances of the feast ; but after the guests have sat down to the table in the order which I have been describing, and when those who minister to them are all standing around in order, ready to wait upon them, and when there is nothing to drink, some one will say .... but even more so than before, so that no one ventures to mutter, or even to breathe at all hard, and then some one looks out some passage in the sacred scriptures, or explains some difficulty which is proposed by some one else, without any thoughts of display on his own part, for he is not aiming at reputation for cleverness and eloquence, but is only desirous to see some points more accurately, and is content when he has thus seen them himself not to bear ill will to others, who, even if they did not perceive the truth with equal acuteness, have at all events an equal desire of learning. And he, indeed, follows a slower method of instruction, dwelling on and lingering over his explanations with repetitions, in 6rder to imprint his conceptions deep in the minds of his hearers, for as the understanding of his hearers is not able to keep up with the

VOL. IV. C

interpretation of one who goes on fluently, without stopping to take breath, it gets behind-hand, and fails to comprehend what is said; but tbe hearers, fixing their eyes and attention upon the speaker, remain in one and the same position listening attentively, indicating their attention and comprehension by their nods and looks, and the praise which they are inclined to bestow on the speaker by the cheerfulness and gentle manner in which they follow him with their eyes and with the fore-finger of the right hand.

And the young men who are standing around attend to this explanation no less than the guests themselves who are sitting at meat. And these explanations of the sacred scriptures are delivered by mystic expressions in allegories, for the whole of the law appears to these men to resemble a living animal, and its express commandments seem to be the body, and the invisible meaning concealed under and lying beneath the plain words resembles the soul, in which the rational soul begins most excellently to contemplate what belongs to itself, as in a mirror, beholding in these very words the exceeding beauty of the sentiments, and unfolding and explaining the symbols, and bringing the secret meaning naked to the light to all who are able by the light of a slight intimation to perceive what is unseen by what is visible.

When, therefore, the president appears to have spoken at sufficient length, and to have carried out his intentions adequately, so that his explanation has gone on felicitously and fluently through his own acuteness, and the hearing of the others has been profitable, applause arises from them all as of men rejoicing together at what they have seen and heard ; and then some one rising up sings a hymn which has been made in honour of God, either such as he has composed himself, or some ancient one of some old poet, for they have left behind them many poems and songs in trimetre iambics, and in psalms of thanksgiving and in hymns, and songs at the time of libation, and at the altar, and in regular order, and in choruses, admirably measured out in various and well diversified strophes.

And after him then others also arise in their ranks, in becoming order, while every one else listens in decent silence, except when it is proper for them to take up the burden of the song, and to join in at the end ; for then they all, both men

and women, join in the hymn. And when each individual has finished his psalm, then the young men bring in the table which was mentioned a little while ago, on which was placed that most holy food, the leavened bread, with a seasoning of salt, with which hyssop is mingled, out of reverence for the sacred table, which lies thus in the holy outer temple ; for on this table are placed loaves and salt without seasoning, and the bread is unleavened, and the salt unmixed with anything else, for it was becoming that the simplest and purest things should be allotted to the most excellent portion of the priests, as a reward for their ministrations, and that the others should admire similar things, but should abstain from the loaves, in order that those who are the more excellent persons may have the precedence.

XL And after the feast they celebrate the sacred festival during the whole night ; and this nocturnal festival is celebrated in the following manner : they all stand up together, and in the middle of the entertainment two choruses are formed at first, the one of men and the other of women, and for each chorus there is a leader and chief selected, who is the most honourable and most excellent of the band. Then they sing hymns which have been composed in honour of God in many metres and tunes, at one time all singing together, and at another moving their hands and dancing in corresponding harmony, and uttering in an inspired manner songs of thanksgiving, and at another time regular odes, and performing all necessary strophes and antistrophes.

Then, when each chorus of the men and each chorus of the women has feasted separately by itself, like persons in the bacchanalian revels, drinking the pure wine of the love of God, they join together, and the two become one chorus, an imitation of that one which, in old time, was established by the Red Sea, on account of the wondrous works which' were displayed there ; for, by the commandment of God, the sea became to one party the cause of safety, and to the other that of utter destruction ; for it being burst asunder, and dragged back by a violent reflux, and being built up on each side as if there were a solid wall, the space in the midst was widened, and cut into a level and dry road, along winch the people passed over to the opposite land, being conducted onwards to higher ground ; then, when the sea returned and

Si) PHILO JUD.<£US.

ran back to its former channel, and was poured out from both sides, on what had just before been dry ground, those of the enemy who pursued were overwhelmed and perished.

When the Israelites saw and experienced this great miracle, which was an event beyond all description, beyond all imagination, and beyond all hope, both men and women together, under the influence of divine inspiration, becoming all one chorus, sang hymns of thanksgiving to God the Saviour, Moses the prophet leading the men, and Miriam the prophetess leading the women.

Now the chorus of male and female worshippers being formed, as far as possible on this model, makes a most humorous concert, and a truly musical symphony, the shrill voices of the women mingling with the deep-toned voices of the men. The ideas were beautiful, the expressions beautiful, and the chorus-singers were beautiful ; and the end of ideas, and expressions, and chorus-singers, was piety ; thei'efore, being intoxicated all night till the morning with this beautiful intoxication, without feeling their heads heavy or closing their eyes for sleep, but being even more awake than when they came to the feast, as to their eyes and their whole bodies, and standing there till morning, when they saw the sun rising they raised their hands to heaven, imploring tranquillity and truth, and acuteuess of understanding.

And after their prayers they each retired to their own separate abodes, with the intention of again practising the usual philosophy to which they had been wont to devote themselves.

This then is what I have to say of those who are called therapeutae, who have devoted themselves to the contemplation of nature, and who have lived in it and in the soul alone, being citizens of heaven and of the world, and very acceptable to the Father and Creator of the universe because of their virtue, which has procured them his love as their most appropriate reward, which far surpasses all the gifts of fortune, and conducts them to the very summit and perfection of happiness.

INCORRUPTIBILITY OP THE WORLD.

I. In every uncertain and important business it is proper to invoke God, because he is the good Creator of the world, and because nothiug is uncertain with him who is possessed of the most accurate knowledge of all things. But of all times it is most necessary to invoke him when one is preparing to discuss the incorruptibility of the world ; for neither among the things which are visible to the outward senses is there anything more admirably complete than the world, nor among things appreciable by the intellect is there anything more perfect than God. But the mind is at all times the governor of the outward sense, and that which is appreciable by the intellect is at all times superior to that which is visible to the outward senses, but those persons in whom there is implanted a vigorous and earnest love of truth willingly undergo the trouble of making inquiries relative to the subordinate things, from that which is superior to and the rider over them.

If then, we, who have been practised and trained in all the doctrines of prudence, and temperance, and virtue, have discarded all the stains of the passions and diseases, perhaps God would not disdain to give to souls completely purified and cleansed, so as to appear in his image, a knowledge of heavenly things either by means of dreams, or of oracles, or of signs, or of wonders. But since we have on us the marks of folly, and injustice, and of all other vices strongly stamped upon us and difficult to be effaced, we must be content even if we are only able by them to discover some faint copy and imitation of the truth. It is right, therefore, for those who are investigating the question whether the world is perishable, since the two words, "corruption," and " the world," will be in continual use, first of all to investigate the precise meaning of both expressions, in order that we may know what is now signified, and what has been ordained. And we must enumerate, not indeed everything which is signified by those words, but so much as is useful for the purpose of our present instruction.

il. The world, therefore, is spoken of in its primary sense

22 PH1L0 JUDjEUS.

as a single system, consisting of the heaven and the stars in the circumference of the earth, and all the animals and plants ■which are upon it ; and in another sense it is spoken of merely as the heaven. And Anaxagoras, having a regard to this fact, once made answer to a certain person who asked of him what the reason was why he generally endeavoured to pass the night in the open air, that he did so for the sake of beholding the world, by which expression he meant the motions and revolutions of the stars.

And in its third meaning, as the Stoics affirm, it is a certain admirably-arranged essence, extending to the period of conflagration, either beautifully adorned or unadorned, the periods of the motion of which are called time.

But at present* the subject of our consideration is the world, taken in the first sense of the word, which being one only, consists of the heaven, and of the earth, and of all that is therein. And the term corruption is used to signify a change for the worse ; it is also used to signify the utter destruction of that which exists, a destruction so complete as to have no existence at all ; for as nothing is generated out of nothing, so neither can anything which exists be destroyed so as to become non-existence.* For it is impossible that anything should be generated of that which has no existence anywhere, and equally so that what does exist should be so utterly destroyed as never to be mentioned or heard of again. And indeed in this spirit the tragedian says : —

" Nought that e'er has been Completely dies, but things combined Before another union find ; Quitting their former company, And so again in other forma are seen."t

Nor is it so very silly a thing to doubt whether the world is destroyed so as to pass into a state of non-existence, but rather whether it is subjected to a change from a new arrangement, being dissolved as to all the manifold forms of its elements and combinations so as to assume one and the same appearance, or whether, like a thing broken and dashed to pieces, it is subjected to a complete confusion of its different fragments.

This is similar to Lucretius's doctrine —

Nil igitur fieri de nihilo posse putandum est.

t From the Chrysippus of Euripides.

III. And there are three different opinions on the subject which we are at present discussing. Since some persons affirm that the world is eternal, and uncreated, and not liable to any destruction ; while others, on the contrary, say that it has been created and is destructible. There are also others who take a portion of each of these two opinions, agreeing with the last-mentioned sect that it has been created, but with the former class that it is indestructible ; and thus they have left behind them a mixed opinion, thinking that it is at the same time created and imperishable.

However, Democritus and Epicurus, and the principal number of the Stoic philosophers, affirm both the creation and the destructibility of the world, though they do not all speak in similar senses ; for some give a sketch of many worlds, the generation of which they attribute to the concourse and combination of atoms, and their destruction they impute to the dissolution and breaking up of the combined particles.

But the Stoics speak of one world only, and affirm that God is the cause of its creation, but that the cause of its corruption is no longer God, but the power of invincible, unwearied fire, which pervades all existing things, in the long periods of time dissolving everything into itself, while from it again a regeneration of the world takes place through the providence of the Creator. And according to these men there may be one world spoken of as eternal and another as destructible, destructible in reference to its present arrangement, and eternal as to the conflagration which takes place, since it is rendered immortal by regenerations and periodical revolutions which never cease.

But Aristotle, with a knowledge as to which I know not to what degree I may call it holy and pious, affirmed that the world was uncreated and indestructible, and he accused those who maintained a contrary opinion of terrible impiety, for thinking that so great a visible God was in no respect different from things made with hands, though he contains within himself the sun, and the moon, and all the rest of the planets and fixed stars, and, in fact, the whole of the divine nature ; and he said in a cavilling and reproachful tone, that formerly he had feared for his house lest it should be overthrown by violent gales, or extraordinary storms, or by lapse of time, or through the want of tbe proper care requisite to preserve if,

24 PHILO JUDJSUS.

but that now he had a much greater fear hanging over him in consequence of those men who by their reasonings went to destroy the whole world. But some say that it was not Aristotle who invented this doctrine, but some of the Pythagoreans ; but I have met with a work of Ocellus, a Lucanian by birth, entitled, " A Treatise on the Nature of the Universe," in which he has not only asserted that the world is indestructible, but he has even endeavoured to prove it so by demonstrative proofs.

IV. But some say that the world has been proved by Plato in the Tiinaeus to be both uncreated and indestructible, in the account of that divine assembly in which the younger gods are addressed by the eldest and the governor of them all in the following terms ;* " 0 ye gods of gods, those works of which I am the father and the creator are indissoluble as long as I choose that they shall be so. Now everything which has been bound together is capable of being dissolved, but it is the part of an evil ruler to dissolve that which has been well combined and arranged, and which is in good condition. Wherefore, since you also have been created, you are not of necessity immortal or utterly indissoluble ; nevertheless you shall not be dissolved, nor shall you be exposed to the fate of death, inasmuch as you have my will to keep you united, which is a still greater and more powerful bond than those by which you were bound together when you were first created."

But some persons interpret Plato's words sophistically, and think that he affirms that the world was created, not inasmuch as it has had a beginning of creation, but inasmuch as if it had been, created it could not possibly have existed in any other manner than that in which it actually does exist as has been described, or else because it is in its creation and change that the parts are seen. But the forementioned opinion is better and truer, not only because throughout the whole treatise he affirms that the Creator of the gods is also the father and creator and maker of everything, and that the world is a most beautiful work of his and his offspring, being an imitation visible to the outward senses of an archetypal model appreciable only by the intellect, comprehending in itself as many objects of the outward senses as the model does objects

of the intellect, since it is a most perfect impression of a most perfect model, and is addressed to the outward sense as the other is to the intellect .

But also because Aristotle bears witness to this fact in the case of Plato, who, from his great reverence for philosophy, would never have spoken falsely, and also because no one can possibly be more to be credited in the case of a teacher than his pupil, especially when the pupil is such a man as this who did not apply himself to instruction lightly with an indifference easily satisfied, but who even endeavoured to surpass all the discoveries of former men, and did actually devise some novelties and enrich every part of philosophy with some most important discoveries.

V. But some persons think that the father of the Platonic theory was the poet Hesiod, as they conceive that the world is spoken of by him as created and indestructible ; as created, when he says, —

" First did Chaos rule ; Then the broad-chested earth was brought to light, Foundation firm and lasting for whatever Exists among mankind ;"f

and as indestructible, because he has given no hint of its dissolution or destruction.

Now Chaos was conceived by Aristotle to be a place, because it is absolutely necessary that a place to receive them must be in existence before bodies. But some of the Stoics think that it is water, imagining that its name has been derived from effusion.]: But however that may be, it is exceedingly plain that the world is spoken of by Hesiod as having been created : and a very long time before him Moses, the lawgiver of the Jews, had said in his sacred volumes that the world was both created and indestructible, and the number of the books is five. The first of which he entitled Genesis, in which he begins in the following manner : " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth ; and the earth was invisible and without form." Then proceeding onwards he relates in the following verses, that days and nights, and seasons, and years, and the sun and moon, which showed the nature of the measurement

There is probably some corruption in the text here.

f Hesiod, Theogon 116.

£ Xixric, as if chaos were derived from %sw, " to pour."

of time, were created, which, having received an immortal portion in common with the whole heaven, continue for ever indestructible.

But we must place those arguments first which make out the world to be uncreated and indestructible, because of our respect for that which is visible, employing an appropriate commencement. To all things which are liable to destruction there are two causes of that destruction, one being internal and the other external ; therefore you may find iron, and brass, and all other substances of" that kind destroyed by themselves when rust, like a creeping disease, overruns and devours them ; and by external causes when, if a house or a city is burnt, they also are consumed in the conflagration, being melted by the violent impetuosity of the fire.

A similar end also befalls animals, partly when they are sick of diseases arising internally, and partly when they are destroyed by external causes, being sacrificed, or stoned, or burnt, or when they endure an unclean death by hanging.

And if the world also is destroyed, then it must of necessity be so either by some external cause, or else by some one of the powers which exist within itself; and both these alter natives are impossible, for there is nothing whatever outside of the world, since all things are brought together in order to make it complete and full, for it is in this way that it will be one, and whole, and free from old age ; it will be one, because if anything were left outside of it, then another world might be created resembling that which exists now ; and whole, because the whole of its essence is expended on itself ; and exempt from old age and from all disease, since those bodies which are liable to be destroyed by disease or old age are violently overthrown by external causes, such as heat, and cold, and other contrary qualities, no power of which is able to escape so as to surround and attack the world, all those being entirely enclosed within, without any part whatever being separated from the rest.

whole, which is the greatest possible absurdity, for the world,

enjoying an unsurpassable power, influences all its parts, and

is not itself influenced or moved by any one of them ; in the

second place because, since there are two causes of corruption,

the one being internal and the other external, those things

which are competent to admit the one must also by all means

be liable to the other ; and a proof of this may be found in

oxen, and horses, and men, and other animals of similar kinds,

because it is their nature to be destroyed by the sword, or to

be liable to die by disease ; for it is difficult, or I might rather

say impossible, to find anything which, being by nature at the

mercy of some external cause perceptible by the intellect, will

still not be liable to corruption ... by itself when the world

was not.

For that which has no existence is not put in motion, but it has been shown already that time is an interval of the motion of the world. It follows, therefore, of necessity, that each of these things must have subsisted from all eternity, without receiving any beginning of generation, and being in consequence not liable to any corruption. Perhaps some quibbling Stoic will say that time is admitted to be an interval of the motion of the world, but not of that world only which is arranged and adorned by itself, but also of that one which is conceived of in connection with the conflagration which has been spoken of; to whom we must reply, — " My good man, you, misapplying words, call what is disorderliness and a want of arrangement order (xos/j,og), for if this thing which we see is correctly and appropriately called the world (xos/xog)* being arranged and adorned (xsxofy/.Tj/.z.gvog) as we see it by man, by the perfection of his skill, then any one would be surely correct in calling the change which is wrought in it by fire a want of order."

VI. But Critolaus, a man who devoted himself very much to literature, and a lover of the Peripatetic philosophy, agreeing with the doctrine of the eternity of the world, used the following arguments to prove it: "If the world was created, then it follows of necessity that the earth was created also ; and if the earth was created, then beyond all question the human race was so too. But man was not created, since he subsists

Philo is playing here on the two meanings of the word (cocr//u<;, which signifies both " order " and " the world."

of an everlasting race, as shall be proved, therefore the world is eternal."

But I must now proceed to examine the argument which I postponed just now, if indeed things that are so evident stand in need of any demonstration ; but, indeed, proofs are necessary on account of the inventors of fables who, filling all life with their falsehoods, have utterly driven truth out of the land, and have not merely banished it from cities and houses, but have even deprived each separate individual of that most valuable possession, and, for the purpose of alluring his sight, have invented metres and rhythm as a bait and a snare, by which they cajole the ears of fools, just as ugly and shapeless courtesans allure the eyes by necklaces and spurious ornaments in the absence of all genuine beauty, for they say that the generation of mankind by means of one another is a more recent work of nature, but that the more original and ancient mode of their birth is out of the earth, since she both is and is considered the mother of all men. And they say that those men who are celebrated among the Greeks as having sprung from seed were produced and grew up as trees do now, being perfect and completely armed sons of the earth. But that this is a mere fiction of fable it is easy to see from many circumstances.

For the very moment that the first man was born there was a necessity for his receiving growth in accordance with the previously denned measures and numbers of time, for nature has arranged the different ages as certain steps along which man in a manner ascends and descends ; he ascends while he is growing, and he descends at the period when he is lessening ; and the boundary of the uppermost steps is the prime of life at which when a man has arrived he no longer makes any further advance ; but as runners who run the diaulos turn back again upon the same path which they have already travelled, so too does man retrace his steps, giving back in the weakness of old age what he has received from vigorous youth ; but to fancy that any one has ever been born absolutely perfect is the part of those who are ignorant of the laws of nature, which are unchangeable ordinances.

For our minds, being vitiated by the contagion of the mortal body which is united to them, are very naturally liable to changes and alterations, but the works of the nature of the universe are unalterable, since she has dominion over all

things, and by means of the stability of whatever desires she has once established she preserves the definitions which have been originally fixed in an unchangeable state. If then she had originally thought it proper that men should be born perfect, now also man would still be born in a perfect state, without ever being an infant, or a boy, or a youth, but he would at once be a man, and perhaps he would be altogether exempt from old age and from death, for that thing which has no increase must also of necessity be exempt from all diminution, for up to the prime of a man's life all his changes tend towards increase, but from that period up to old age and death they exist with a gradual diminution ; and it is natural to suppose that he who has no share in the former must also be free from the subsequent changes.

And what is there that can hinder men from shooting up now out of the ground like plants, as they say that they did in former times ? For the earth has not yet grown old so as to appear to have become barren by reason of the lapse of time, but it remains in the same condition as before, being always young, because it is a fourth part of the universe, and for the sake of ensuring the duration of the universe it is bound not to decay, because its kindred elements, water, air, and fire, all remain for ever exempt from old age. And there is a visible proof of the uninterrupted and everlasting vigour of the earth in the plants which spring from it, for being purified, either by the overflowing of rivers, as they say that Egypt is, or by annual rains, by such irrigation it refreshes and recruits its exhausted powers, and then, having rested for a while, it recovers its natural powers to the full extent of its original vigour, and then it begins again with a repetition of the production of similar things to those which it produced before to supply abundant food to every description of animal.

VII. In reference to which fact it appears to me that the poets were very felicitous in the appellation which they gave to the earth when they called it Pandora, inasmuch as it gives all things,* both such as are required for use and such as serve to pleasure and to enjoyment, and that not to some only but to all animals which enjoy life. Accordingly, if any one, when the spring was in its prime, should be borne on wings and raised aloft, and look down from his height upon the

Havra Swyovpivqv.

30 PHILO JXJD/EUS.

mountain and champaign country, and see the one abounding in rich grass, and verdant, producing herbage, and fodder, and barley, and wheat, and innumerable other kinds of crops such as are grown from seed which the husbandmen have strown, and which the season of the year affords of its own accord, and the other overshadowed with branches and leaves by which the trees are adorned, and very full of fruits (not only such as are suitable for food, but also of such as are able to heal suffering, for the fruit of the olive relieves the fatigue of the body, and that of the vine, when drunk in moderation, relaxes the excessive pains of the soul), and rich also in the fragrant airs which are borne around from flowers, and the indescribable peculiarities of the various flowers which are diversified by divine skill.

And then, if he turns aside his eyes from those trees which admit of cultivation, and beholds in their turn poplars, and cedars, and pines, and ashes, and the lofty oaks, and the dense and unceasing masses of all the other wild trees which overshadow the most numerous and the greatest of the mountains, and the greater part of the border country wherever there is any deep soil, he will then know that the vigour of the earth, which is always young, is unremitting, unsubdued, and unwearied.

So that since it is in no degree deprived of any portion of its former strength, if it had ever done so before, it would be bringing forth men now also, for two most forcible reasons, one in order that it might not quit the classification belonging to it, especially in the sowing and production of that most excellent of all the creatures which dwell upon the earth, the ruler of all, man, and secondly for the sake of giving assistance to women, who after they have conceived are for about ten months weighed down with the most severe pains, and when they are about to bring forth do very often die in the very pains of labour.

Is it not then altogether a terrible piece of stupidity to imagine that the earth contains any womb calculated for the production of men ? for the womb is the place which vivifies the animal, being as some one has called it the w-orkshop of nature, in which it fashions nothing but animals ; but it is not a portion of the earth, but of a female animal, carefully fashioned so as to be adapted for the production of living creatures, since

ON THE INCORRUPTIBILITY OP THE WORLD. 31

otherwise it would be necessary for us to attribute breasts to the earth as to a woman, when it produces men and they are born, so that when first born they may have appropriate food.

But there is no river nor fountain in the whole habitable world which is said ever to have produced milk instead of water ; and in addition to this, as it is necessary that a child just born must be fed on milk, so also must he avail himself of the protection of clothing on account of the injury which ensues from cold or heat to children while they are being reared, on which account nurses and mothers, to whom the care of infants when just born is of necessity committed, wrap them up in swaddling clothes ; but if they were produced out of the earth, how would it be possible that, being left completely naked, they would not be at once destroyed either by the coldness of the air on the one hand, or the burning heat of the sun on the other ? for when great cold or great heat gets the mastery, it produces diseases and corruptions.

But after the inventors of fables once began to neglect the truth they then ventured to add to their monstrous stories the fiction that those men who sprung from seed were born also in complete armour ; for what smith, or what new Vulcan, was there under the earth so skilful as in a moment to prepare so many suits of armour? and what experience had creatures just born to enable them to use their weapons? for man is a very peaceful animal, nature having given to him reason as his especial honour, by means of which he charms and tames the savage passions. It would have been much better instead of arms to give him a herald's wand, a symbol of agreement and peace suitable to a reasonable nature, in order that he might so proclaim peace instead of war to all men everywhere.

VIII. We have now then discussed at sufficient length the nonsense in opposition to truth which is uttered by those who build up falsehood and fables. But we must be well assured that men have from all eternity sprung from other men in constant succession, the man implanting the seed in the woman as in a field, and the woman receiving the seed so as to preserve it, and nature by her unseen operations fashioning everything, and each separate part of the body and of the suul, and giving to the whole race of mankind that which each

32 PHILO JUDiECJS.

individual separately is unable to receive, namely, the principle of immortality ; for though the individual members are continually perishing, yet the race remains undying as a truly divine work. But if man, who is but a small portion of the universe, is eternal, then certainly the world itself must have been uncreated so as to be imperishable.

IX. But Critolaus, in arguing in support of his opinion, brought forward an argument of this kind, — " That which is the cause to man of his being in health is itself free from disease, and, in like manner, the cause of his keeping awake must itself be sleepless ; and if this is the case, that which is the cause of his existing for ever must itself also be everlasting." Now the cause of man's existing for ever is the world, since it is so to all other things whatever ; therefore the world also is immortal. Nevertheless, this point also is worthy of one consideration : that everything which is born must by all means at the beginning be imperfect, but as time advances he must increase till he arrives at complete perfection, so that if the world was born it was at one time (that I may use the expressions appropriate to the ages of men) a mere infant, and subsequently increasing in periods of years and lapse of time, it at last and with great difficulty arrived at perfection, for of necessity the period at which that which of all things has the longest existence must be late.

But if any one fancies that the world has ever really been subjected to such changes as these, it is time that he should learn that he has been under the influence of incurable madness, for it is plain that if that is the case not only will its bodily appearance be increased, but its mind also will receive growth, since they who attribute liability to perish to it couceive it to be a rational creature. Therefore, just like a man, it will be devoid of reason at the commencement of its existence, but endowed with reason at the age when it is in its prime, which it is impious not only to say, but even to think, for how can we imagine the most perfect visible circumference which surrounds us, and which contains within itself so many individual inhabitants, is not always perfect both in soul and body, being exempt from all those evils in which everything which has been born and which is perishable is implicated '?

X. And in addition to this he says, that there are three causes of death to living animals, besides the external causes

which may affect them, namely, disease, old age, and -want, by no one of which is the world liable to be attacked or subdued, for that it is composed of entire elements, since there is no part of them which is left out or which remains at liberty, so that any violence can be offered to it, and it also is superior to those powers from which diseases arise ; and they yielding keep the world free from all disease, and free from old age, and in a state of the most perfect self-sufficiency as to all its requirements, and without need of anything, since there is nothing wanting to it which can possibly contribute to its durability, and wholly exempt from all successions and alternations of fulness and emptiness, which animals being subject to by reason of their unregulated insatiability, bring upon themselves death instead of life, or, to speak more accurately, a life which is more pitiable than any destruction.

Moreover, if we saw that there was no such thing as any eternal nature to be seen, those who assert the liability of the world to destruction would not appear to be so guilty of disparaging the world without any excuse, since they would have no example whatever of anything being everlasting ; but since fate, according to the doctrine of those who have investigated the principles of natural philosophy most accurately, is a thing without any beginning and without any end, connecting all the causes of everything, as to leave no break and no interruption, why may we not in like manner also affirm of the nature of the world that it subsists for a great length of time, being, as it were, an arrangement of what is otherwise in no order, a harmony of what is otherwise wholly destitute of such harmony, an agreement of what is otherwise without agreement, a union of things previously separated, a condition of stocks and stones, a nature of things growing from seed and of trees, a life of all animals, the mind and reason of men, and the most perfect virtue of virtuous men ?

But if the nature of the world is uncreated and indestructible, then it is plain that the world is held together and powerfully preserved by an everlasting indissoluble chain. But some of those who used to hold a different opinion, being overpowered by truth, have changed their doctrine ; for beauty has a power which is very attractive, and the truth is beyond all things beautiful, as falsehood on the contrary is enormously

VOL. IV. D

Si PHILO JUDiECrS.

ugly ; therefore Boethus, and Posidonius, and Pansetius, men of great learning in the Stoic doctrines, as if seized with a sudden inspiration, abandoning all the stories about conflagrations and regeneration, have come over to the more divine doctrine of the incorruptibility of the world ; and it is said also that Diogenes, when he was very young, agreed entirely with those authors

Since, therefore, the arrangement of the world is such as I have endeavoured to describe it, so that there is no part whatever left out, so as for any force to be applied, it has now been proved that the world will not be destroyed by any external thing, because in fact nothing whatever external has been left at all ; nor will it be destroyed by anything in itself on account of the proof which has already been considered and stated, according to which that which was obnoxious to the power of one of those causes was also naturally susceptible of the influence of the other.

XL And there are testimonies also in the Timseus to the fact of the world being exempt from disease and not liable to destruction, such as these : " Accordingly, of the four elements the constitution of the world receives each in all its integrity ; for he who compounded it made it to consist of the whole of fire, and the whole of water, and the whole of air, and the whole of earth, not leaving any portion or any power of any one of them outside, from the following intentions : — in the first place, in order that the whole might be as far as possible a perfect animal made up of perfect parts. And besides ail these things, he ordained that it should be one, inasmuch as there is nothing left out of which another similar world could be composed. Moreover, he willed tbat it should be exempt from old age, and free from all disease, considering that those things which in the body are hot or cold, or which have mighty powers, if standing all around and falling upon it unseasonably, would be likely to dissolve it, and, by introducing diseases and old age, cause it to decay and perish. For this cause, and because of this reason, God made the whole universe to consist of entire and perfect elements, and exempt from old age and free from disease."

Let this be taken as a testimony delivered by Plato to the imperishable nature of the world. Its uncreated character follows from the truth of natural philosophy ; for dissolution

must of necessity attend everything which is born, and incorruptibility must inevitably belong to everything which is unborn ; since the poet who wrote the following iambic verse, " All that is born must surely die,"

appears to have spoken very correctly when he asserted this connection of destructibility with birth.

The argument may be stated in a diffei'ent way as follows. All compound things which are destroyed are dissolved into the elements of which they were compounded ; accordingly, dissolution is nothing else but a return of everything to its original constituent parts ; just as, on the contrary, composition is that which eompek the things combined to come together in a manner contrary to their nature ; and indeed, this appears to be the most exact truth ; for men are composed of the four elements which together make up the whole of the universe, the heaven, the earth, the air, and fire, borrowing a few parts of each in a manner at first sight hardly consistent with nature. But the things which are thus combined together are necessarily deprived of a motion in accordance with nature ; for instance, warmth is deprived of its upward motion, and coldness of its downward tendency, the earthy and somewhat weighty substance being lightened and assuming the higher place, which the most earth-like of our own parts, the head, has obtained in us. But of all bonds, that is the worst which is forged by violence, and which, being violent, is also shortlived ; for it is speedily broken by those who are bound in it, since they become restive from their desire for a motion in accordance with nature, to which they hasten ; for as the tragic poet says,f —

"And for things sprung from earth, they must Return unto their parent dust, While those from heavenly seed which rise Are borne uplifted to the skies. Though often what has been combined

And this law and ordinance is established with reference to

f A fragment from the Chrysippus of Euripides.

D a

everything which is destroyed, that wherever composite things are existing in combination they are thrown into disorder instead of into the order in accordance with nature, which they previously enjoyed, and they are removed to situations opposite to those in which they were previously placed, so that they seem in a manner to be sojourners ; and when they are dissolved again, then they return to the appropriate parts allotted to them by nature.

XII. But since the world has no participation in that irregularity which exists in the things which I have just been mentioning, let us stop awhile and consider this point.

If the world were liable to corruption and destruction, it follows of necessity that all its parts would at present be arranged in a position not in accordance with nature : but it is impious even to imagine such a thing as this ; for all the parts of the world have received the most excellent position possible, and an arrangement of the purest symmetry and harmony ; so that each individual part, being content with its place as a native country to it, does not seek any change for the better. On this account it is that the most central position of all has been assigned to the earth, to which all things belonging to it adhere, and to which they descend again even if you throw them into the air : and this is a proof that their place is in accordance with nature ; for wherever anything is borne without any violence, and where it then remains firm and stationary, that is clearly its natural place. And then, in the second place, water was poured over the earth, and air and fire have gone from the central to the upper part, air having received for its portion the region which is on the borders between air and fire, and fire having received the highest place of all : on which account, if you light a torch and press it down towards the ground, nevertheless the flame will still turn in a contrary direction, and lightening itself in accordance with the natural motion of fire, will rise upwards : if, then, motion contrary to nature is the cause of corruptibility and destruction in the case of other animals, but if in the case of the world every one of its parts is arranged in complete accordance with nature, having had appropriate positions allotted to each of them, then surely the world must most justly be pronounced incorruptible and imperishable.

Moreover this point is manifest to every one, that every

nature is desirous to keep and preserve, and if it were possible to make immortal, everything of which it is the nature ; the nature of trees, for instance, desires to preserve trees, and the nature of animals desires to preserve each individual animal. But particular nature is of necessity unable to conduct what it belongs to to eternity ; for want, or heat, or cold, or innumerable other ordinary circumstances, when they affect particular things, shake them and dissolve the bond which previously held them together, and at last break them to pieces ; but if nothing resembling any of these things were lying in wait outside, then in that case nature itself, as far as it is possible, would preserve everything both great and small free from old age.

It follows therefore of necessity, that the nature of the world must desire the durability of the universe ; for it is not worse than particular natures, so that it should run away and desert its proper duties, and attempt to produce disease instead of health, and corruption and destruction instead of complete safety, since,

" High over all she lifts her heauteous face, And towers above her nymphs with heavenly grace, Fair as they all appear."

But if this be true, then the world cannot be capable of destruction. Why so ? Because the nature which holds it together is itself invincible by reason of its exceeding strength and power, by which it gets the mastery over every thing else which might be likely to injure it ; wherefore Plato has well said :f — " For nothing ever departed from it, nor did anything ever come to it from any quarter ; for that was not possible ; for there was nothing in existence which could come ; for since it supplies itself with nutriment out of its own consumption, it also does everything and suffers everything in itself and by itself, and is compounded with the most consummate art. For he who created it thought that it would be better if wholly self-sufficient, than if in continual need of accessories from other quarters."

XIII. However, this argument also is a most demonstrative one, on which I know that vast numbers of philosophers

Homer, Odyssey vi. 107, where the lines quoted are applied to Latona among her nymphs,

c8 PHILO JTJMHJS.

pride themselves as one most accurately worked out, and altogether irresistible ; for they inquire what reason there is for God's destroying the world. For if he destroys it at all he must do so either with the intention of never making a world again, or with the object of creating a second fresh one ; now the former idea is inconsistent with the character of God ; for it is proper to change disorder into order, and not order into disorder ; in the second place, it is so because it would give rise to repentance, which is an affliction and a disease of the soul.

For he ought either never to have created a world at all, or else, if he judged that it was a fitting employment for him, he ought to have been pleased with it after it was made. But the second reason deserves no superficial examination ; for if he were intending to make another world instead of that which exists at present, then of necessity this second world that would be made, in that case, would be either worse than, or similar to, or better than the first ; everyone of which ideas is inadmissible ; for if the new world is to be worse than the former, then the maker must be also worse : but all the works of God are without blemish, beyond all reproach and wholly faultless, inasmuch as they are wrought with the most consummate skill and knowledge ; for as the proverb says ; —

" For e'en a woman's wisdom's not so coarse As to despise the good and choose the worse."

But it is consistent with the character of, and becoming to God to give form to what is shapeless, and to invest what is most ugly with admirable beauty.

Again, if the new world is to be exactly like the old one, then the maker is only wasting his labour, and differs in no respect from infant children who, very often while playing on the sea shore raise up little mounds of sand, and then pull them down again with their hands and destroy them ; for it would have been much better than making another world exactly like the former, neither to take anything from, nor to add anything to, nor to change either for the better or for the worse, what existed originally, but to let it remain just as it was.

If, on the other hand, he is about to make a world better than the former one, then the maker too must be better than the maker of the former world, so that when he made the

former world he was inferior both in his skill and in his intellect, which it is impious even to imagine, for God is at all times equal and similar to himself, being neither capable of any relaxation which can make him worse, nor of any extension which can make him better. Men, indeed, do admit of such inequalities in either direction, being naturally liable to alter either for the better or for the worse, and continually admitting of increase, and advance, and improvement, and everything contrary to these states ; and besides this, the works of us who are but mortal men may very appropriately be perishable, but the works of the immortal must in all consistency and reason be likewise imperishable, for it is natural that what is made should resemble the nature of the maker.

XIV. And, indeed, this I imagine is evident to every one, that if the earth were to be destroyed, then all land animals of every kind must also perish with it ; and if the water were destroyed, all aquatic animals must perish ; and in like manner if the air and fire were to be destroyed, all the animals which traverse the air or which are born in the fire must come to an end at the same time. Therefore, on the same principle, if the heaven is destroyed, the sun and moon will also be destroyed, and all the other planets likewise will be destroyed, and all the fixed stars, and all that host of gods visible to the outward senses which was formerly considered so happy ; and to imagine this is nothing else than to fancy the gods themselves in a process of destruction, for this is equivalent to considering men immortal. And yet in a comparison between different objects devoid of honour, if you were to consider the matter, you would find it more consistent with probability to look on men as immortal than to believe that the gods are perishable, since it might happen through the grace of God, for it is not improbable that a mortal might receive immortality, but it is impossible for gods to lose their immortality even if the sophistries of mankind should run on to ever such a degree of wicked insanity.

And, moreover, those persons who allege conflagrations and regenerations of the world, think and confess that the stars are gods, which nevertheless they are not ashamed to destroy as far as their arguments go ; for they are bound to prove them to be either red hot pieces of iron, as some do affirm, who argue about the whole of the heaven as if it were a pvisou,

talking utter nonsense, or else to look upon thein as divine and godlike natures, and then to attribute to them that immortality which belongs to gods.

But as it is, they have wandered so far from true doctrine, that without being aware of it they have attributed corruptibility and perishableness to providence (and that is the soul of the world) by the inconsistent principles which they advocate. Therefore Chrysippus, the most celebrated philosopber of that sect, in his treatise about Increase, utters some such prodigious assertions as these, and after he has prefaced his doctrines with the assertion that it is impossible for two makers of a species to exist in the same substance, he proceeds, " Let it be granted for the sake of argument and speculation that there is one person entire and sound, and another wanting one foot from his birth, and that the sound man is called Dion and the cripple Theon, and afterwards that Dion also loses one of his feet, then if the question were asked which had been spoiled, it would be more natural to say this of Theon ;" but this is the assertion of one who delights in paradox rather than in truth, for how could it be said that he who had suffered no mutilation whatever, namely Theon, was taken off, and that Dion, who had lost a foot, was not injured ? Very appropriately, he will reply, for Dion, who had had his foot cut off, falls back upon the original imperfection of Theon, and there cannot be two specific differences in the same subject, therefore it follows of necessity that Dion must remain, and that Theon must he taken off.

" So are we slain by arrows winged With our own feathers,"

as the tragic poet says. For any one, copying the form of this argument and adapting it to the entire world, may prove in the clearest manner that providence itself is liable to corruption. Consider the matter thus : let the world be the subject of our argument, as Dion was just now, for it is perfect, and let the soul of the world take the place of Theon, who was

From the Myrmidons of iEschylus. The passage is evidently the original of the stanza in Waller's Ode to a Lady Singing —

"That eagle's fate and mine are one,

Who on the shaft that made him die, Espied a feather of his own,

Wherewith he wont to soar so high."

ON THE INCORRUPTIBILITY OF THE WOULD. 41

imperfect, since a part is less than the whole ; and as the foot was cut off from Dion, so also let everything which resembles a body be cut off from the world ; therefore it is necessary to say that the world has not been destroyed though its body has been taken away, just as Dion was not destroyed by having his foot cut off, but the soul of the world it is that has perished, like Theon, who suffered no artificial mutilation, for the world also receded to a lesser substance when all of it that resembled a body was taken away. And the soul was destroyed because there could not be two specific differences affecting the same subject. But it is impiety to say that providence perishes, and since it is imperishable it follows of necessity that the world also must be imperishable.

XV. However, time also affords a very great argument in favour of the eternity of the world, for if time is uncreated, then it follows of necessity that the world also must be uncreated. Why so ? Because, as the great Plato says, it is days, and nights, and months, and the periods of years which have shown time, and it is surely impossible that time can exist without the motion of the sun, and the rotary progress of the whole heaven. So that it has been defined very felicitously by those who are in the habit of giving definitions of things, that time is the interval of the motion of the world, and since this is a sound definition, then the world must be co-eval with time and also the cause of its existence.

And it is the most absurd of all ideas to fancy that there ever was a time when the world did not exist, for its nature is without any beginning and without any end, since these very expressions, " there was," " when," " formerly," all indicate time ; and keeping to this view, then, according to the theory

of the conflagration* he at a late period of his life

entertained doubts and withheld any positive opinion ; for it does not belong to youth, but to old age, to see clearly things of solemn importance which it is desirable to understand, and especially as to matters which it is not the outer sense, which is irrational and deceitfid, that determines, but the pure and unalloyed intellect.

XVI. But Boethus adduces the most convincing arguments, which we shall proceed to mention immediately ; for if, says he, the world was created and is liable to destruction, then some-

There is supposed to be a very lai-ge hiatus hjre.

42 PEILO JUD.EUS.

thing will be made out of nothing, which appears to be most absurd even to the Stoics. Why so ? Because it is not possible to discover any cause of destruction either within or without, which will destroy the world. For on the outside there is nothing except perhaps a vacuum, inasmuch as all the elements in their integrity are collected and contained within it, and within there is no imperfection so great as to be the cause of dissolution to so great a thing.

Again, if it is destroyed without any cause, then it is plain that from something which has no existence will arise the engendering of destruction, which is an idea quite inadmissible by reason ; and, indeed, they say that there are altogether three generic manners of corruption, one which arises from division, another which proceeds from a destruction of the distinctive quality which holds the thing together, and the third from confusion ; therefore the things which consist of a union of separate members, such as flocks of goats, herds of oxen, choruses, armies ; or, again, bodies which are compounded of limbs joined together, are dissolved by disjunction and separation. But wax, when stamped with a new impression, or softened before being remodelled so as to present a new and different appearance, is corrupted by a destruction of he distinctive quality which previously held it together. Other things are corrupted by confusion, as the medicine which the physicians call tetrapharmacon, for the powers of the drugs brought together and combined were destroyed in such a manner as to produce one perfect medicine of especial virtue.

By which, then, of these modes of corruption is it becoming to say that the world is destroyed ? By that which is caused by separation ? No, for it is not compounded of separate members so that its different parts can be dispersed, nor of portions joined together so that they can be dissolved ; nor is it united together in a similar manner to our own bodies, for they have the seeds of decay in themselves, and they are subject to influence of a great variety of things by which they are at times injured ; but the power of the world is invincible, since by its great superiority to other things it has dominion over everything.

Is it then destroyed by a complete destruction of its distinctive qualities ? This again is impossible, for there remains, as the adversaries affirm, a quality of arrangement which by

the process of conflagration is only diminished to a lesser substance ... Is it destroyed then by confusion ? Away with such an idea, for in that case it would be necessary to confess that the corruption of a body can be reduced to a state of nonexistence. Why so? Because if each of the particular elements were destroyed separately, it would be possible for it to become changed into auother ; but if they are altogether destroyed at one and the same moment by confusion, then it would be necessary to imagine what is absolutely impossible.

Again, besides these arguments, if all things, say they, were destroyed by fire, then what will God have to do during all that time, except absolutely nothing? And is it not reasonable to say so ? For at present, he overlooks and presides over everything, and regulates everything like a genuine father, and if one is to say the truth, he guides and directs everything, sitting as it were by the side of the sun, and moon, and the other planets, and fixed stars, and also by the air, and the other parts of the world, and he co-operates with them in everything which can conduce to the durability of the universe and to its blameless management, in accordance with right reason. But if everything is destroyed, then he will have an existence which will be rendered absolutely miserable, by inactivity and irremediable want of employment ; than which what idea can be more absurd ? I hesitate to add, what it would be impious to say, that death will ensue to God if absolute inactivity falls to his lot ; for if you take away the perpetual motion of the soul, then you will beyond all question also destroy the soul itself. And the soul of the world, in the opinion of those who maintain the opposite doctrine, is God.

XVII. Is it not however worth while to examine this question, in what mantier there can be a regeneration of all those things which have been destroyed by fire, and resolved into fire ? for when their substance has been wholly destroyed by the fire, it follows of necessity that the fire itself must also be extinguished as no longer having any nourishment. Therefore, as long as it remained the seminal principle of arrangement was likewise preserved, but when it is destroyed that principle is destroyed with it. But it would be impious, and an impiety of double dye, not only to attribute destruction to the world, but also to take away the possibility of its regeneration ; as if God delighted in disorder, and irregularity, and all kinds of evil

things. But we must examine this question more accurately, in the following manner.

There are three species in fire ; the coal, and the flame, and the light. Now coal is the fire in its earthy substance, which, like a sort of spiritual habit, couches and lies hid in a sort of cavern, pervading it all to its very extremities. And the flame is that part which, being raised on high, is lifted up from its fuel. And the light is that which is emitted from the flame, so as to co-operate with the eyes, in order to enable them to comprehend what is seen. And the flame occupies the middle position between the coal and the light ; for when it is extinguished it ends in coal, and when it is kindled it excites the light, which, being deprived of its burning power, blazes. If therefore, we affirm that the world is dissolved by conflagration, it would not be coal, because, in that case there will be a great deal of the earthy substance left behind, in which also fire must necessarily be contained. But we must agree, that none of the other bodies subsist any longer, but that earth, and water, and air, are all dissolved into unmixed fire. Nor, again, would it become flame ; for that can only exist in connexion with nourishment ; and, if nothing is left behind, being deprived of all nourishment it will immediately be extinguished. It follows from all this, that it cannot become light either ; for light by itself has no substance at all, but flows from the things before mentioned, coal and flame, not in a great degree from the coal, but very much from the flame ; for it is diffused over a very great space indeed. But if, as has been already proved, those things had no existence from the conflagration of all things, then there could not be any light either. For the abundant, and vast, and extensive brilliancy of mid-day, when the sun proceeds under the earth, is at once caused to disappear by night, especially if it be a moonless night. Therefore the world is not destroyed by fire, but is indestructible. And if it should be destroyed by tire, there could not be another created.

XVIII. On which account some of the Stoics also, being gifted with a more acute discernment, and perceiving that they would infallibly be convicted, thought it well to be beforehand in preparing assistance as it were for a defunct proposition. But what they prepared was of no use ; for, since fire is the cause of all motion, and since motion is the beginning of generation, for it is impossible that anything whatever should

be generated without motion, they said that before the new world began to be formed, when it was beginning to be fashioned, the whole fire would not be extinguished in that conflagration ; that they affirmed that some would still remain, but yet only a small portion. For they were exceedingly cautious, lest if it should be wholly extinguished, the consequence would be that everything would remain motionless and devoid of ornament, inasmuch as the cause of motion would no longer be in any existence. But all these ideas are the invention of quibblers, who employ all their artifices in opposition to the truth. Why so ? Because it is impossible, as has been proved already, that the world, after it has been destroyed by conflagration, should become similar to coal, inasmuch as there is a vast quantity of earthy substance left in which the fire must of necessity lie in ambush. And perhaps too the conflagration could not prevail in every quarter, if the heaviest and most invincible of the elements, namely the earth, still remains, without being dissolved ; but it must of necessity change, either into flame or into light : into flame, as Cleanthes thought ; into light, as Chrysippus conceived. But if it becomes flame, then, when it approaches extinction, it will be extinguished all at once, and not partially or gradually. For the nutriment exists along with it ; on which account, while there is a great deal of it, it increases and is diffused ; but when it is stunted it becomes less.

And any one might conjecture the truth of what takes place from what he sees happen among us. A lamp, when any one pours oil upon it, gives forth a most brilliant flame ; but when any one ceases to supply it with that nutriment, and leaves only a small portion in the lamp, then the lamp is at once extinguished, and does not give out the smallest portion of flame.

If again this is not the case, but if the world becomes light, then again it changes altogether. Why so ? Because it has no substance or character of its own, but is generated from flame, and when this is wholly and completely extinguished in all its parts, it follows of necessity that the light also must be extinguished, and that not partially, but altogether. For what flame is to nourishment, that also is light to flame. As therefore the flame is extinguished concurrently with the want of nourishment, so also is the light simultaneously with the flame, so that it is actually impossible for the world to be capable of

regeneration, if there is no seminal principle lurking and kindled within it, but if all things are expended and destroyed, some by fire, and some by want. From all which arguments it is plain that the world is for ever uncreated aud imperishable.

XIX. Nevertheless, as Chrysippus says, some suppose that fire resolves all the arrangement of the universe when the elements are separated into itself, so that it becomes the seed of the world which is about to be made ; and suppose in consequence that, of all the ideas which he and his sect have entertained on the subject, none are falsified. Granting, in the first place, that generation proceeds from seed, and that all dissolution is a resolving back into seed ; in the second place, because it is argued by natural philosophers that the world is a rational nature, inasmuch as it is not only possessed of life, but is also endowed with intellect, and moreover even with wisdom ; by these arguments he establishes the contrary proposition to that which he intends, namely, that it will never be destroyed. But the proofs are ready at hand to those who do not fear to join in the investigation.

Therefore the world resembles either a plant or an animal. But whether it is a plant or whether it is an animal, still, if it be destroyed by conflagration, it will never be itself its own seed. And the circumstances which take place among ourselves bear witness that nothing, whether greater or less, when destroyed, has ever been separated in such a manner as to engender seed. Do you not see how many materials of plants susceptible of cultivation there are, and how many kinds of wild plants too are diffused over every portion of the earth ? Every one of these trees, as long as the trunk is in good health, together with its fruit, produces also a seed to propagate its species ; but becoming destroyed after a lapse of time, and being wholly withered, roots and all, it never becomes resolved into a ripened seed. And so too in the same manner the different, kinds of animals, which it is not easy even to enumerate by reason of their multitude, as long as they survive and flourish vigorously, produce a seed, which is calculated to propagate their species ; but when they are dead there is no longer any seed.

For it would be absurd for a man when he is alive to employ only the eighth part of his soul, which is called the generative power, for the propagation of a being like himself, but after he

is dead to exert the whole of himself for the same purpose ; for death can never be more energetic or efficacious than life. And besides, there is no single existing thing which is brought to perfection by seed alone without its appropriate nourishment, For seed resembles the beginning, and the beginning by itself does not make perfect ; for beware of imagining that the ear of corn blossoms and ripens solely from the seed, which is cast by the husbandman on the ploughed field ; for in truth, dryness and moisture, the twofold moisture which is derived from the earth, co-operate in the greatest degree towards its growth. And so the creature which is fashioned in the womb is not permitted by nature to be brought to life and perfection by the seed alone, but also by the nourishment shed upon it from without, which the woman who has conceived supplies.

"Why then do I say this? Because in the case of such a conflagration as that of which I have been speaking, the seed alone will be left, there being no nutriment remaining, since everything which was to have supplied nutriment will have been resolved into fire ; so that the world, which would be to be formed, according to the principle of regeneration, will have a lame and imperfect form and character, since that which is chiefly required to co-operate towards its perfection, on which, as on a staff, the seminal origin ought to, and naturally does, lean, is destroyed ; but this would be absurd, as is shown, and made manifest from the clearest evidence.

Again, all those things which derive their origin from seed are of a greater magnitude than the seed which gives them their existence, and are seen to fill a more extended space ; for very often trees, whose tops reach to heaven itself, shoot up out of a very small grain of seed ; and the fattest and tallest animals grow from a very small quantity of moisture, which is laid as their foundation ; but there happens that which was mentioned a little while ago, that these, at the time nearest to their birth are very little, but that subsequently they keep on increasing in size till they arrive at complete perfection.

But in the case of the universe the exact contrary will take place, for here the seed will both be greater and will also fill a larger space ; and the ultimate perfection at which the thing formed arrives will be smaller, and will appear in a smaller space ; and the world, originally derived from a seed, will not

progress from a very small thing towards increase, but, on the other hand, will be diminished from a greater magnitude to a smaller ; and it is easy to see the truth of what is here said.

Every body, when it is resolved into fire, is dissolved, and melted, and diffused ; and when the flame which is in it is extinguished, it is then contracted and shrunk up to nothing ; but there is no need of arguments to prove a thing which is so clear, as if it were obscure ; and, indeed, the world, if consumed by fire, will become greater, inasmuch as all its essence will then be dissolved into the thinnest air; and it appears to me that the Stoics have foreseen this, and on that account have, in their arguments, assumed that a vacuum of infinite extent will be left abandoned on the outside of the world; that so, since it is fated to be subjected to a certain diffusion of boundless extent, it may not be in want of a place which may be capable of receiving that diffusion. When therefore it has been extended and increased to such a degree, as to be very nearly equal to the infinite extent of the vacuum by the boundless and illimitable extension of its own diffusion, it then, according to them, is itself the principle of seed to itself; but when, according to a perfect regeneration of the parts, its

entire substance* being contracted in the extinction

of the fire into dense air ; but when the air again is contracted, and when it settles down into water, then again the water is still further condensed, so as to be changed into earth, which is the best of all the elements. But all these arguments are beyond the ordinary ideas of those who are able to consider and argue upon the consequences of these things.

XX. However, besides what has been here said, any onemay use this argument also in corroboration of his opinion, which will certainly convince all those who are not determined to be obstinate beyond all bounds ; of those things which in pairs are exactly contrary to one another it is impossible that one thing should be, and that the other should not be ; for since there is white it follows as a matter of absolute necessity that there must also be black, and since there is a great there must likewise be a little ; since there is an odd there must inevitably be an even ; since there is a sweet there must be a bitter ; since there is day there must be night ; and so on in an infinite number of similar cases ; but if a conflagra- There seems a line or two lost here.

ON TEE INCORRUPTIBILITY OF THE WORLD. 49

tion should take place, then something would ensue which is impossible ; for then, of things in a pair, the one will happen and the other will not.

Come, now, let us consider the matter thus : if everything is resolved into fire, there is then something light, and rare, and warm ; for all these are the especial properties of fire ; but there can be nothing heavy, or cold, or thick, which are the opposites of the qualities which I have just enumerated. How then can any one more completely overturn the idea of the universal disorder which would be involved in such a conflagration than by showing that those things which by a law of nature must exist together, are by this process separated from their natural conjunction? And the separation has extended to such a degree, that those who maintain this doctrine attribute eternal durability to the one and deny any existence at all to the other.

Again, there is this assertion made by some of those who diligently employ themselves in investigating truth which appears to me to be a sufficiently felicitous one ; if the world is destroyed it will either be destroyed by some other efficient cause, or by God ; now there is certainly nothing else whatever from which it can receive its destruction, for there is nothing whatever which it does not surround and contain ; but that which is surrounded and confined within something else is manifestly inferior in power to that which surrounds and confines it, by which it is therefore mastered ; on the other hand, to say that it is destroyed by God is the most impious of all possible assertions ; for God is the cause not of disorder, and irregularity, and destruction, but of order, and beautiful regularity, and life, and of every good thing, as is confessed by all those whose opinions are based on truth.

XXI. But a person may very likely wonder at those who talk about conflagrations and regenerations, not only on account of the arguments which I have just been adducing, by which they are convicted of maintaining erroneous opinions, but also above all other reasons for this one ; for since there are four elements of which the world consists, namely, earth, water, air, and fire, why is it that they are to separate fire from all the others, and to affirm that all the others are dissolved into that one ? For some one may say, if it is necessary that they should all be resolved into one, why

VOL. IV. E

should they not be resolved into air, or water, or earth ? For these elements also contain powers of great magnitude ; but yet no one has ever said that the world was to pass away iuto air, or into water, or into earth ; so that it would be equally natural to deny that it is resolved into fire.

Moreover, it would have become them, perceiving the beautiful equality which exists in the world, to fear and to feel too great awe to venture to condemn so divine a thing to death : for there is a most admirable system of compensation existing in the four elements which arrange and dispense their vicissitudes by the rules of equality, and the definitions of justice ; for as the seasons of the year, in their proper alternations of revolutions, go through their regular cycle, completing their periodical changes without any cessation ; in the same manner suppose that the elements of the world in the course of their continual interchanges with one another (though it is a most paradoxical assertion), when they appear to be perishing are in reality being made immortal, passing over the same course again and again, so as to have their existence infinitely protracted.

Therefore the steep road begins with the earth ; for when it is wasted away it endures a change to water, and the water when it has evaporated is changed into air, and the air when rarefied is changed into fire ; but the downward road descends from the head, when the fire in consequence of the conflagration which ensues settles down into air, and again when the air being closely pressed settles down into water, and when the water by its copious effusion is condensed so as to be changed into earth.

Heraclitus therefore spoke very correctly when he said that, " Water was the death of the soul, and earth the death of water." For thinking that the breath was the soul, he indicates, by this figurative and enigmatical expression, that the end of air is the production of water, and again that the end of water is the production of earth ; and when he speaks of death he does not mean utter destruction, but a change into some other element ; that equalised proportion of the elements which is attempered by itself being thus preserved eternal and uninjured, as is not only probable but absolutely inevitable ; since what is unequal is essentially unjust, and injustice is the offspring of wickedness, and wickedness is banished from the

abode of immortality. But the world is of a divine magnitude, and has been shown to be the abode of those gods which are visible to the outward senses ; and to affirm that this world is destroyed is the part of those who do not see the connection of nature and the united consequence and coherence of things.

XXII. But some of those persons who have fancied that the world is everlasting, inventing a variety of new arguments, employ also such a system of reasoning as this to establish their point : they affirm that there are four principal manners in which corruption is brought about, addition, taking away, transposition, and alteration ; accordingly, the number two is by the addition of the unit corrupted so as to become the number three, and no longer remains the number two ; and the number four by the taking away of the unit is corrupted so as to become the number three ; again, by transposition the letter Z becomes the letter H when the parallel lines which were previously horizontal £ are placed perpendicularly II, and when the line which did before pass upwards I, so as to connect the two is now made horizontal, and still extended between them so as to join them. And by alteration the word oivog, wine, becomes oigog, vinegar.

But of the manner of corruption thus mentioned there is not one which is in the least degree whatever applicable to the world, since otherwise what could we say? Could we affirm that anything is added to the world so as to cause its destruction ? But there is nothing whatever outside of the world which is not a portion of it as the whole, for everything is surrounded, and contained, and mastered by it. Again, can we say that anything is taken from the world so as to have that effect? In the first place that which would be taken away would again be a world of smaller dimensions than the existing one, and in the second place it is impossible that any body could be separated from the composite fabric of the whole world so as to be completely dispersed. Again, are we to say that the constituent parts of the world are transposed ? But at all events they remain in their original positions without any change of place, for never at any time shall the whole earth be raised up above the water, nor the water above the air, nor the air above the fire. But those things which are by nature heavy, namely the earth and the water, will have the middle place, the earth supporting everything like a solid

foundation, and the water being above it ; and the air and the fire, which are by nature light, will have the higher position, but not equally, for the air is the vehicle of the fire ; and that which is carried by anything is of necessity above that which carries it.

Once more : we must not imagine that the world is destroyed by alteration, for the change of any elements is equipollent, and that which is equipollent is the cause of unvarying steadiness, and of untroubled durability, inasmuch as it neither seeks any advantage itself, and is not subject to the inroads of other things which seek advantages at its expense ; so that this retribution and compensation of these powers is equalized by the rules of proportion, being the produce of health and endless preservation, by all which considerations the world is demonstrated to be eternal.

XXIII. Theophrastus, moreover, says that those men who attribute a beginning and destructibility to the world are deceived by four particulars of the greatest importance, the inequalities of the earth, the retreat of the sea, the dissolution of each of the parts of the universe, and the destruction of different terrestrial animals in their kinds ; and he proceeds to establish the first point thus : if the earth had never had any beginning of its creation, then there would have been no portion of it rising above the rest so as to be conspicuous, but all the mountains would have been level, and all the pieces of rising ground would have been even with the plain.

For as there are such vast showers falling from heaven throughout all ages, it would be natural that of any places which were originally raised on high some would be broken down and washed away by torrents, and others would subside of their own accord and so become lowered, and that every place everywhere would be smoothed ; but now, as things are, the constant inequalities which exist, and the vast heights of many mountains, reaching up even to the sky, are so many proofs that the earth is not eternal.

For otherwise, as I have said before, all the earth would long since have been rendered level from one extremity to the other by the vast rains which would have falleu from the eternal commencement of time ; for it is the character of the nature of water, and especially of such as descends in a heavy fall from lofty places, to push some things away by force, and

to cut out and hollow other places by its continual dropping, and in this manner to operate on the hard, rugged, stony ground not less than men digging. And again, the sea, as they affirm, is already somewhat diminished, and for proof of this fact we can appeal to the most celebrated islands, Rhodes and Delos, for these were in ancient times invisible, being overwhelmed by and sunk under the sea, but by lapse of time, as the sea gradually diminished, they by slow degrees rose above it and came into sight, as the histories which are written concerning them record. And they used to call Delos Anaphe, confirming the account here given by both names, since when it appeared above the waters * it became evident,f having been formerly invisible and unseen.

And in addition to these arguments they adduce the facts that many great and deep bays and gulfs of vast seas have been dried up, and have become land, and have so turned out no insignificant addition to the adjacent country when sown and planted, and on that soil there is still left plenty of proof of such spots having formerly been sea, in the pebbles, and shells, and other things which are commonly washed up on the sea-shore being found in them ; on which account Pindar says respecting Delos —

" Hail, island raised by God,

Chosen abode Of fair Latona's son with golden hair.

Hail, ocean's youngest child, The last immoveable domain

That o'er his bosom smiled. Upraised from beneath the billowy main

Mortals may call you Delos, but the choir That dwells upon Olympus' height,

Their chosen bards inspire To praise thee as earth's brightest, holiest light." %

For Pindar has here called Delos the daughter of the ocean, intending by this enigmatical expression to convey the idea which I have mentioned. But if the sea is gradually being diminished then the earth also will be diminished ; and in long revolutions of years every one of the elements will be entirely consumed and destroyed ; and the whole air will be

The Greek word is aveKpavtZcra, from which 'Ara^/y is derived. t At/Xr], from which A/j\og is derived. J This ia part of an ode now lost.

I

54 pniLO jud-eus.

consumed, being diminished by little and little ; and all things will be absorbed and dissolved into the one substance of fire.

XXIV. And for the purpose of establishing the third alternative of this question they use the following argument : beyond all question that thing is destroyed all the parts of which are liable to destruction ; but all the parts of the world are liable to destruction, therefore the world also is liable to destruction.

But we must now proceed to consider the question which we postponed till the present time. What sort of a part of the earth is that, that we may begin from this, whether it is greater or less, that is not dissolved by time ? Do not the very hardest and strongest stones become hard and decayed through the weakness of their conformation (and this conformation is a sort of course of a highly strained spirit, a bond not indissoluble, but only very difficult to unloose), in consequence of which they are broken up and made fluid, so that they are dissolved first of all into a thin dust, and afterwards are wholly wasted away and destroyed ? Again, if the water were never agitated by the winds, but were left immoveable for ever, would it not from inaction and tranquillity become dead ? at all events it is changed by such stagnation, and becomes very foetid and foul-smelling, like an animal deprived of life. And so also the corruptions of the air are plain to everyone, for it is the nature of the atmosphere to become sick and to decay, and, as one may say, in a manner to die ; since what else is it which a man, who is not aiming at selecting plausible language, but only at truth, would call a plague except a death of the atmosphere, which diffuses its own disease and suffering to the destruction of everything which is endowed with life ?

And why need I speak at great length concerning fire ? for if it is deprived of nourishment it is immediately extinguished, becoming, as the poets say, tame by its own natural qualities, on which account it depends upon, and is raised up by the duration of the fuel which is supplied and kindled, but when that is expended the fire also disappears. And they say that tbe dragous in India are exposed to the same' kind of fate, for that they crawl upon the greatest of all beasts, namely elephants, and creep over their backs and the whole of their bellies, and then, if they can find a vein, they divide that and

drink the blood, sucking it insatiably, with a strong breath and a vigorous noise. Meantime the elephants, though greatlydrained, and though becoming gradually exhausted, hold out for some time, leaping about in their perplexity, and lashing their sides with their trunks in the hope of being able to shake off the dragons. After a time, as the vital principle is continually becoming more and more exhausted, they are no longer able to leap about, but stand trembling and quivering, and after a little more time their legs become too weak to support them, and they are thrown down and die for want of blood. And when they are fallen down those animals which were the causes of their death die with them in the following manner : since the dragons have no longer any nourishment, they attempt to loosen the bonds with which they twined themselves round the elephants, wishing now to get released from them, but they are pressed down by the weight of the elephants and crushed, and much more so when tbe animal has become a lifeless, hard, and stone-like substance ; for though they wriggle about and try every expedient in order to effect their release from the power of the animal which weighs them down, and by which they are entangled, though they have long practised themselves in every variety of wile, amid all kinds of difficulties and distresses, they at last become too weak to resist, like men who have been starved to death, or who have been caught by a wall which has suddenly fallen down upon them, and not being able even to lift up their heads they die of suffocation.

If then, each of the separate parts of the world awaits utter destruction, it is plain that the world which is compounded of these can not be itself exempt from destruction.

therefore examine the dates of each of these, disregarding the fables invented by the tragedians about the gods : but if man is not eternal then neither is any other animal, so that then neither are the places which receive them, the earth, or the water, or the air ; from all which considerations it is plain that this world is liable to destruction.

XXV. But it is necessary to encounter such quibbling arguments as these, lest some persons of too little experience should yield to and be led away by them ; and we must begin our refutation of them from the same point from which the Sophists begin their deceit. They say, " There could no longer be any inequalities existing on the earth, if the world were eternal." Why not, my most excellent friends ? For other persons will come up and say that the natures of trees are in no respect different from mountains; but just as they at certain seasons lose their leaves, and again at certain seasons recover their verdure again ; (on which account there is admirable truth in those lines of the poet : —

" Like leaves on trees the race of man is found, Now green in youth, now withering on the ground ; Another race the following spring supplies ; They fall successive and successive rise."

And so in like manner some portions of the mountains are broken off, and others grow in their stead : but after a long lapse of time the additional growth becomes conspicuous because the trees having a more rapid nature, display their increase with great rapidity ; but mountains have a slower character, on which account it happens that the additions which take place in their case are not perceptible by the outward senses except after a long time.

ON THE INCORRUPTIBILITY OP THE WORLD. 57

relaxation, though ever so slight, it draws up with it a large portion of the earthy substance, as much as it can ; and when it has emerged from the earth it proceeds more slowly ; but the earthy substance being compelled to follow it for a long time, being at last raised to an immense height, is contracted at the top, and at last comes to end on a sharp point imitatiDg the general appearance of the flame of fire ; for there arises then a most violent contention between two things which are natural adversaries, the lightest and the heaviest of things, each of them pressing onwards to reach its own place, and each striving against the violent efforts of the other ; accordingly the fire, which is drawing up the earth with it, is compelled to sink down by its descending power ; and the earth naturally inclining to the lowest point is nevertheless to a certain degree made light, and lifted up by the upward tendencies of fire, and so is raised on high, and being at last overpowered by the more influential power which lightens it is thrust upwards towards the natural seat of fire, and established on high.

Why then need we wonder if the mountains are not entirely washed away by the impetuosity of the rains, when so great a power, which keeps them together, and by which they are raised up, is very firmly and steadfastly connected with them ? For if they were released from the bond which holds them together, it would be natural for them to be entirely dissolved and to be dispersed by the water ; but since they are bound together by this power of fire, they resist the impetuosity of the rains more surely.

XXVI. These things, then, may be said by us with respect to the argument that, the inequalities of the surface of the earth are no proof of the world having been created and being liable to destruction ; but with respect to that argument which was endeavoured to be established by the diminution of the sea, we may reasonably adduce this statement in opposition to it : " Do not look only at the islands which have risen up out of the sea, nor at any portions of land which, having been formerly buried by the waters, have in subsequent times become dry land ; for obstinate contention is very unfavourable to the consideration of natural philosophy, which considers the search after truth to be the chief object of rational desire ; but look lather at the contrary effects : consider how many districts on

the main-land, not only such as were near the coast, but even such as were completely in-land, have been swallowed up by the waters ; and consider how great a portion of land has become sea and is now sailed over by innumerable ships." Are you ignorant of the celebrated account which is given of that most sacred Sicilian strait, which in old times joined Sicily to the continent of Italy?* and where vast seas on each side being excited by violent storms met together, coming from opposite directions, the land between them was overwhelmed and broken away ; from which circumstance the city built in the neighbourhood was called Bhegium,f and the result was quite different from what any one would have expected ; for the seas which had formerly been separated now flowed together and were united in one expanse ; and the land which had previously united was now separated into two portions by the strait which intersected it, in consequence of which Sicily, which had previously formed a part of the mainland, was now compelled to be an island.

And it is said that many other cities also have disappeared, having been swallowed up by the sea which overwhelmed them ; since they speak of three in Peloponnesus —

" Mgira, and fair Bura's walls, And Helica's lofty halls, And many a once renowned town, With wreck and seaweed overgrown,"

This is alluded to by Virgil —

Haee loca vi quondam, et vasta convulsa ruina Tantum sevi longinqua valet mutare vetustas, Dissiluisse ferunt, quum protenus utraque tellus Una foret : venit medio vi pontus, et uudis Hesperium Siculo latus abscidit, arvaque et urbes Litore diductas angusto intermit aestu. — ^En. iii. 419. Or, as it is translated by Dryden,

" The Italian shore And fair Sicilia's coast were one before An earthquake caused the flaw ; the roaring tides The passage broke that land from land divides, And where the lands retired the rushing ocean rides Distinguished by the straits on either hand Now rising cities in long order stand, And fruitful fields ; so much can time invade The mouldering work that beauteous nature made." ■+ 'Prj-yioj', from pqyvvfii, "to break."

as having been formerly prosperous, but now overwhelmed by the violent influx of the sea. And the island of Atalantes which was greater than Africa and Asia, as Plato says in the Timseus, in one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea in consequence of an extraordinary earthquake and inundation and suddenly disappeared, becoming sea, not indeed navigable, but full of gulfs and eddies. Therefore that imaginary and fictitious diminution of the sea has no connection with the destruction or durability of the world ; for in fact it appears „to recede indeed from some parts, but to rise higher in others ; and it would have been proper rather not to look at only one of these results but at both together, and so to form one's opinion, since in all the disputed questions which arise in human life, a wise and honest judge will not deliver his opinion before he has heard the arguments of the advocates on both sides.

XVII. And as for the third argument, it is convicted by itself, as being derived only from an unsound system of questioning proceeding from the assertions originally made; for in truth it does not necessarily follow that a thing, all the parts of which are liable to corruption, is likewise perishable itself ; but this is only inevitably true of that thing of which all the parts are perishable when taken collectively and together in the same place and at the same time, since in the case of a person who has the tip of his finger cut off, he is not disabled from living, but if he had the whole collection of all his parts and limbs cut off at once, he would die immediately. Therefore in the same manner, if all the elements of the world together were all to disappear at one and the same moment, then it would be necessary to admit that the world was liable to corruption and destruction; but if each of these elements separately only changes its nature so as to assimilate to that of its nature, it is then rendered immortal rather than destroyed, according to the philosophical statement of the tragic poet —

Though often what has been combined

For it is the greatest folly imaginable to estimate the antiquity of the human race from the state of art ; for if any one were to follow the absurdity of such a system of reasoning as this, he

GO PHILO JUD.EUS.

will prove the world to be very young indeed, and to have been made scarcely a thousand years, since all those men whom we have heard of traditionally as the discoverers in different branches of science do not go back to a greater number of years than that which I have mentioned.

But if we must speak of the arts as co-eval with the race of mankind, then we must speak, drawing our arguments from natural history, and not inconsiderately or carelessly. And what is this history ? The destruction of the things on the earth, not all together, but of the greatest number of them, is attributed to two principal causes, the indescribable violence and power of fire and water. And they say that each of these elements attacks them in its turn, after very long periods of revolving years. When, therefore, a conflagration seizes upon things, a stream of ethereal fire being poured down from above is frequently diffused over them, overrunning many districts of the habitable world ; and when a deluge draws down the whole of the rainy nature of water, the regular rivers and torrents overflowing, and not only that, but even far exceeding the ordinary measure of a common flood, and breaking down their banks with their violence, or else overleaping them, and rising to an enormous height, from which they swell and are diffused over all the adjacent champaign country, and the land is in the first instance divided into huge lakes, as the water is continually settling down into the more hollow parts, and afterwards flows still higher, and inundates the isthmuses which separate the lakes, till at last everything presents the appearance of one vast sea from the union of so many waters.

And then it happens that, through the violence of these powers contending against one another in turn, the inhabitants of the places exposed to it are destroyed ; those who dwell on the mountains and higher ground, and in ill-watered districts, being destroyed by fire, as not having a sufficiency of water, which is the natural weapon with which to repel fire, and those, on the other hand, being destroyed by water who live on the banks of rivers or lakes, or on the shores of the sea, for evils like to attack those who are nearest first, or indeed solely.

Accordingly, when the greater part of mankind is destroyed in the manners above mentioned, besides an infinity of other ways of less power and importance, it follows of necessity that

the arts also must fail, for it cannot be possible to discuss science by itself without some one to reduce it to method and practice. But when those common pestilences relax their fury, and when the human race begins again to recover vigour and to flourish, descending from those who have not been previously destroyed by the evils which pressed upon them, then the arts also begin again to exist, not indeed as they were at first, but in thinner numbers from the diminution of the numbers of those who practise them.

I have now then set forth to the best of my ability what I have been able to learn or to understand concerning the indestructibility of the world, and in the subsequent treatises I shall proceed to show what may be said against each of the arguments here stated.

A TREATISE

I. Flaccus Avillius succeeded Sejanus in his hatred of and hostile designs against the Jewish nation. He was not, indeed, able to injure the whole people by open and direct means as he had been, inasmuch as he bad less power for such a purpose, but he inflicted the most intolerable evils on all who came within his reach.

Moreover, though in appearance he only attacked a portion of the nation, in point of fact he directed his aims against all whom he could find anywhere, proceeding more by art than by force ; for those men who, though of tyrannical natures and dispositions, have not strength enough to accomplish their designs openly, seek to compass them by manoeuvres.

This Flaccus being chosen by Tiberius Caesar as one of his intimate companions, after the death of Severus, who had been lieutenant-governor in Egypt, was appointed viceroy of Alexandria and the country round about, being a man who at the beginning, as far as appearance went, had given innumerable instances of his excellence, for he was a man of prudence and diligence, and great acuteness of perception, very energetic in executing what he had determined on, very eloquent as a speaker, and skilful too at discerning what was suppressed as

well as at understanding what was said. Accordingly in a short time he became perfectly acquainted with the affairs of Egypt, and they are of a very various and diversified character, so that they are not easily comprehended even by those who from their earliest infancy have made them their study.

The scribes were a superfluous body when he had made such advances towards the knowledge of all things, whether important or trivial, by his extended experience, that he not only surpassed them, but from his great accuracy was qualified instead of a pupil to become the instructor of those who had hitherto been the teachers of all other persons. However, all those things in which he displayed an admirable system and great wisdom concerning the accounts and the general arrangement of the revenues of the land, though they were serious matters and of the last importance, were nevertheless not such as gave any proofs of a soul fit for the task of governing ; but those things which exhibited a more brilliant and royal disposition he also displayed with great freedom. For instance, he bore himself with considerable dignity, and pride and pomp are advantageous things for a ruler; and he decided all suits of importance in conjunction with the magistrates, he pulled down the overproud, he forbade promiscuous mobs of men from all quarters to assemble together, and prohibited all associations and meetings which were continually feasting together under pretence of sacrifices, making a drunken mockery of public business, treating with great vigour and severity all who resisted his commands.

Then when he had filled the whole city and country with his wise legislation, he proceeded in turn to regulate the military affairs of the land, issuing commands, arranging matters, training the troops of every kind, infantry, cavalry, and lightarmed, teaching the commanders not to deprive the soldiers of their pay, and so drive them to acts of piracy and rapine, and teaching each individual soldier not to proceed to any actions unauthorised by his military service, remembering that he was appointed with the especial object of preserving peace.

II. Perhaps some one may say here : " Do you then, my good man, you who have determined to accuse this man, bring no accusation whatever against him, but on the contrary, weave long panegyrics in his honour ? Arc you not doting and mad ?"

" I am not mad, my friend, nor am I a downright fool, so as

AGAINST FLA CCUS. 63

to be unable to see the consequences or connexion of things. I praise Flaccus, not because it is right to praise an enemy, but in order to make his wickedness more conspicuous ; for pardon is given to a man who does wrong from ignorance of what is right; but he who does wrong knowingly has no excuse, being already condemned by the tribunal of his own conscience."

III. For having received a government which was intended to last six years, for the first five years, while Tiberius Caesar was alive, he both preserved peace and also governed the country generally with such vigour and energy that he was superior to all the governors who had gone before him. But in the last year, after Tiberius was dead, and when Caius had succeeded him as emperor, he began to relax in and to be indifferent about everything, whether it was that he was overwhelmed with most heavy grief because of Tiberius (for it was evident to everyone that he grieved exceedingly as if for a near relation, both by his continued depression of spirits and his incessant weeping, pouring forth tears without end as if from an inexhaustible fountain), or whether it was because he was disaffected to his successor, because he preferred devoting himself to the party of the real rather tban to that of the adopted children, or whether it was because he had been one of those who had joined in the conspiracy against the mother of Caius, having joined against her at the time when the accusations were brought against her, on account of which she was put to death, and having escaped through fear of the consequence of proceeding against bim.

However, for a time he still paid some attention to the affairs of the state, not wholly abandoning the administration of his government; but when he heard that the grandson of Tiberius and his partner in the government had been put to death at the command of Caius, he was smitten with intolerable anguish, and threw himself on the ground, and lay there speechless, being utterly deprived of his senses, for indeed his mind had long since been enervated by grief.

For as long as that child lived he did not despair of some sparks still remaining of his own safety, but now that he was dead, he considered that all his own hopes had likewise died with him, even if a slight breeze of assistance might still be left, such as his friendship with Macro, who had unbounded

influence with Caius in his authority; and who, as it is said, had very greatly contributed to his obtaining the supreme power, and in a still higher degree to his personal safety, since Tiberius had frequently thought of putting Caius out of the way, as a wicked man and one who was in no respects calculated by nature for the exercise of authority, being influenced also partly by his apprehensions for his grandson ; for he feared lest, when he himself was dead, his death too would be added to the funerals of his family.

But Macro had constantly bade him discard these apprehensions from his mind, and had praised Caius, as a man of a simple, and honest, and sociable character ; and as one who was very much attached to his cousin, so that he would willingly yield the supreme authority to him alone, and the first rank in everything. And Tiberius, being deceived by all these representations, without being aware of what he was doing, left behind him a most irreconcileable enemy, to himself, and his grandson, and his whole family, and to Macro, who was his chief adviser and comforter, and to all mankind ; for when Macro saw that Caius was forsaking the way of virtue and yielding to his unbridled passions, following them wherever they led him and against whatever objects they led him, he admonished and reproved him, looking upon him as the same Caius who, while Tiberius was alive, was mild-tempered and docile ; but to his misery he suffered most terrible punishment for his exceeding goodwill, being put to death with his wife, and children, and all his family, as a grievous and troublesome object to his new sovereign. For whenever he saw him at a distance coming towards him, he used to speak in this manner to those who were with him : " Let us not smile ; let us look sad : here comes the censor and monitor ; the all-wise man, he who is beginning now to be the schoolmaster of a full-grown man, and of an emperor, after time itself has separated him from and discarded the tutors of his earliest infancy."

IV. When, therefore, Flaccus learnt that he too was put to death, he utterly abandoned all other hope for the future, and was no longer able to apply himself to public affairs as he had done before, being enervated and wholly broken down in spirit. But when a magistrate begins to despair of his power of exerting authority, it follows inevitably, that his subjects

must quickly become disobedient, especially those who are naturally, at every trivial or common occurrence, inclined to show insubordination, and, among people of such a disposition, the Egyptian nation is pre-eminent, being constantly in the habit of exciting great seditions from very small sparks.

And being placed in a situation of great and perplexing difficulty he began to rage, and simultaneously, with the change of his disposition for the worse, he also altered every tinner which had existed before, beginning with his nearest friends and his most habitual customs ; for he began to suspect and to drive from him those who were well affected to him, and who were most sincerely his friends, and he reconciled himself to those who were originally his declared enemies, and he used them as advisers under all circumstances ; but they, for they persisted in their ill-will, being reconciled with him only in words and in appearance, but in their actions and in their hearts they bore him incurable enmity, and though only pretending a genuine friendship towards him, like actors in a theatre, they drew him over wholly to their side ; and so the governor became a subject, and the subjects became the governor, advancing the most unprofitable opinions, and immediately confirming and insisting upon them ; for they became executors of all the plans which they had devised, treating him like a mute person on the stage, as one who was only, by way of making up the show, inscribed with the title of authority, being themselves a lot of Dionysiuses, demagogues, and of Lampos, a pack of cavillers and word-splitters ; and of Isidoruses, sowers of sedition, busy-bodies, devisers of evil, troublers of the state ; for this is the name which has, at last, been given to them.

All these men, having devised a most grievous design against the Jews, proceeded to put it in execution, and coming privately to Flaccus said to him, " All your hope from the child of Tiberius Nero has now perished, and that which was your second best prospect, your companion Macro, is gone too, and you have no chance of favour with the emperor, therefore we must find another advocate, by whom Caius may be made propitious to us, and that advocate is the city of Alexandria, which all the family of Augustus has honoured from the very beginning, and our present master above all the rest ; and it will be a sufficient mediator in our behalf, if it can obtain one

vol. iv r

boon from you, and you cannot confer a greater benefit upon it than by abandoning and denouncing all the Jews."

Now though upon this he ought to have rejected and driven away the speakers as workers of revolution and common enemies, he agrees on the contrary to what they say, and at first he made his designs against the Jews less evident, only abstaining from listening to causes brought before his tribunal with impartiality and equity, and inclining more to one side than to the other, and not allowing to both sides an equal freedom of speech ; but whenever any Jew came before him he showed his aversion to him, and departed from his habitual affability in their case ; but afterwards he exhibited his hostility to them in a more conspicuous manner.

V. Moreover, some occurrences of the following description increased that folly and insolence of his which was derived from instruction rather than from nature. Caius Csesar gave Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the king, the third part of his paternal inheritance as a sovereignty, which Philip the tetrarch, who was his uncle on his father's side, had previously enjoyed. And when he was about to set out to take possession of his kingdom, Caius advised him to avoid the voyage from Brundusium to Syria, which was a long and troublesome one, and rather to take the shorter one by Alexandria, and to wait for the periodical winds ; for he said that the merchant vessels which set forth from that harbour were fast sailers, and that the pilots were most experienced men, who guided their ships like skilful coachmen guide their horses, keeping them straight in the proper course. And he took his advice, looking upon him both as his master and also as a giver of good counsel.

Accordingly, going down to Dica;archia, and seeing some Alexandrian vessels in the harbour, looking all ready and fit to put to sea, he embarked with his followers, and had a fair voyage, and so a few days afterwards he arrived at his journey's end, unforeseen and unexpected, having commanded the captains of his vessels (for he came in sight of Pharos about twilight in the evening) to furl their sails, and to keep a short distance out of sight in the open sea, until it became late in the evening and dark, and then at night he entered the port, that when he disembarked he might find all the citizens buried in sleep, and so, without any one seeing him, he might arrive at the house of the man who was to be his entertainer. With

so much modesty then did this man arrive, wishing if it were possible to enter without being perceived by any one in the city.

For he had not come to see Alexandria, since he had sojourned in it before, when he was preparing to take his voyage to Rome to see Tiberius, but he desired at this time to take the quickest road, so as to arrive at his destination with the smallest possible delay. But the men of Alexandria being ready to burst with envy and ill-will (for the Egyptian disposition is by nature a most jealous and envious one and inclined to look on the good fortune of others as adversity to itself), and being at the same time filled with an ancient and what I may in a manner call an innate enmity towards the Jews, were indignant at any one's becoming a king of the Jews, no less than if each individual among them had been deprived of an ancestral kingdom of his own inheritance.

And then again his friends and companions came and stirred up the miserable Flaccus, inviting, and exciting, and stimulating him to feel the same envy with themselves ; saying, " The arrival of this man to take upon him his government is equivalent to a deposition of yourself. He is invested with a greater dignity of honour and glory than you. He attracts all eyes towards himself when they see the array of sentinels and body-guards around him adorned with silvered and gilded arms. For ought he to have come into the presence of another governor, when it was in his power to have sailed over the sea, and so to have arrived in safety at his own government? For, indeed, if Caius did advise or rather command him to do so, he ought rather with earnest solicitations to have deprecated any visit to this country, in order that the real governor of it might not be brought into disrepute and appear to have his authority lessened by being apparently disregarded."

When he heard this he was more indignant than before, and in public indeed he pretended to be his companion and his friend, because of his fear of the man who directed his course, but secretly he bore him much ill-will, and told every one how he hated him, and abused him behind his back, and insulted him indirectly, since he did not dare to do so openly ; for he encouraged the idle and lazy mob of the city (and the mob of Alexandria is one accustomed to great license of speech, and

68 PHILO JUIXEUS.

one which delights above measure in calumny and evil-speaking), to abuse the king, either beginning to revile him in his own person, or else exhorting and exciting others to do so by the agency of persons who were accustomed to serve him in business of this kind. And they, having had the cue given them, spent all their days reviling the king in the publicschools, and stringing together all sorts of gibes to turn him into ridicule.

And at times they employed poets who compose farces, and managers of puppet shows, displaying their natural aptitude for every kind of disgraceful employment, though they were very slow at learning anything that was creditable, but very acute, and quick, and ready at learning anything of an opposite nature. For why did he not show his indignation, why did he not commit them to prison, why did he not chastise them for their insolent and disloyal evil speaking? And even if he had not been a king but only one of the household of Caesar, ought he not to have had some privileges and especial honours? The fact is that all these circumstances are an undeniable evidence that Flaccus was a participator in all this abuse ; for he who might have punished it with the most extreme severity, and entirely checked it, and who yet took no steps to restrain it, was clearly convicted of having permitted and encouraged it ; but whenever an ungoverned multitude begins a course of evil doing it never desists, but proceeds from one wickedness to another, continually doing some monstrous thing.

VI. There was a certain madman named Carabbas, afflicted not with a wild, savage, and dangerous madness (for that comes on in fits without being expected either by the patient or by bystanders), but with an intermittent and more gentle kind ; this man spent all his days and nights naked in the roads, minding neither cold nor heat, the sport of idle children and wanton youths ; and they, driving the poor wretch as far as the public gymnasium, and setting him up there on high that he might be seen by everybody, flattened out a leaf of papyrus and put it on his head instead of a diadem, and clothed the rest of his body with a common door mat instead of a cloak, and instead of a sceptre they put in his hand a small stick of the native papyrus which they found lying by the wayside and gave to him ; and when, like actors in theatrical spectacles, he

AGAINST FLACCDS. 69

had received all the insignia of royal authority, and had been dressed and adorned like a king, the young men bearing sticks on their shoulders stood on each side of him instead of spearbearers, in imitation of the body-guards of the king, and then others came up, some as if to salute him, and others making as though they wished to plead their causes before him, and others pretending to wish to consult with him about the affairs of the state.

Then from the multitude of those who were standing around there arose a wonderful shout of men calling out Maris ; and this is the name by which it is said that they call the kings among the Syrians ; for they knew that Agrippa was by birth a Syrian, and also that he was possessed of a great district of Syria of which he was the sovereign ; when Flaccus heard, or rather when he saw this, he would have done right if he had apprehended the maniac and put him in prison, that he might not give to those who reviled him any opportunity or excuse for insulting their superiors, and if he had chastised those who dressed him up for having dared both openly and disguisedly, both with words and actions, to insult a king and a friend of Caesar, and one who had been honoured by the Roman senate with imperial authority ; but he not only did not punish them, but he did not think fit even to check them, but gave complete license and impunity to all those who designed ill, and who were disposed to show their enmity and spite to the king, pretending not to see what he did see, and not to hear what he did hear.

And when the multitude perceived this, I do not mean the ordinary and well-regulated population of the city, but the mob which, out of its restlessness and love of an unquiet and disorderly life, was always filling every place with tumult and confusion, and who, because of their habitual idleness and laziness, were full of treachery and revolutionary plans, they, flocking to the theatre the first thing in the morning, having already purchased Flaccus for a miserable price, which he with his mad desire for glory and with his slavish disposition, condescended to take to the injury not only of himself, but also of the safety of the commonwealth, all cried out, as if at a signal given, to erect images in the synagogues, proposing a most novel and unprecedented violation of the law.

And though they knew this (for they are very shrewd in

their wickedness), they adopted a deep design, putting forth the name of Caesar as a screen, to 'whom it would be impiety to attribute the deeds of the guilty ; what then did the governor of the country do ? Knowing that the city had two classes of inhabitants, our own nation and the people of the country, and that the whole of Egypt was inhabited in the same manner, and that Jews who inhabited Alexandria and the rest of the country from the Catabathmos on the side of Libya to the boundaries of Ethiopia were not less than a million of men ; and that the attempts which were being made were directed against the whole nation, and that it was a most mischievous thing to distress the ancient hereditary customs of the land ; he, disregarding all these considerations, permitted the mob to proceed with the erection of the statues, though he might have given them a vast number of admonitory precepts instead of any such permission, either commanding them as their governor, or advising them as their friend.

VII. But he, for he was eagerly co-operating in all that was being done amiss, thought fit to use his superior power to face the seditious tumult with fresh additions of evil, and as far as it depended on him, one may almost say that he filled the whole of the inhabited world with civil wars ; for it was sufficiently evident that the report about the destruction of the synagogues, which took its rise in Alexandria would be immediately spread over all the districts of Egypt, and would extend from that country to the east and to the oriental nations, and from the borders of the land in the other direction, and from the Mareotic district which is the frontier of Lib}ra, towards the setting of the sun and the western nations. For no one country can contain the whole Jewish nation, by reason of its populousness ; on which account they frequent all the most prosperous and fertile countries of Europe and Asia, whether islands or continents, looking indeed upon the holy city as their metropolis in which is erected the sacred temple of the most high God, but, accounting those regions which have been occupied by their fathers, and grandfathers, and great grandfathers, and still more remote ancestors, in which they have been born and brought up, as their country ; and there are even some regions to which they came the very moment that they were originally settled, sending a colony of their people to do a pleasure to the founders of the colony.

And there was reason to fear lest all the populace in every country, taking what was done in Egypt as a model and as an excuse, might insult those Jews who were their fellow citizens, by introducing new regulations with respect to their synagogues and their national customs ; but the Jews, for they were not inclined to remain quiet under everything, although naturally entirely disposed towards peace, not only because contests for natural customs do among all men appear more important than those which are only for the sake of life, but also because they alone of all the people under the sun, if they were deprived of their houses of prayer, would at the same time be deprived of all means of showing their piety towards their benefactors, which they would have looked upon as worse than ten thousand deaths, inasmuch as if their synagogues were destroyed thev would no longer have any sacred places in which they could declare their gratitude, might have reasonably said to those who opposed them : You, without being aware of it, are taking away honour from your lords instead of conferring any on them. Our houses of prayer are manifestly incitements to all the Jews in every part of the habitable world to display their piety and loyalty towards the house of Augustus ; and if they are destroyed from among us, what other place, or what other manner of showing that honour, will be left to us ? For if we were to neglect the opportunity of adhering to our national customs when it is afforded to us, we should deserve to meet with the severest punishment, as not giving any proper or adequate return for the benefits which we have received ; but if, while it is in our power to do so, we, in conformity with our own laws which Augustus himself is in the habit of confirming, obey in everything, then I do not see what great, or even what small offence can be laid to our charge ; unless any one were to impute to us that we do not transgress the laws of deliberate purpose, and that we do not intentionally take care to depart from our national customs, which practices, even if they at first attack others, do often in the end visit those who are guilty of them. But Flaccus, saying nothing that he ought to have said, and everything which he ought not to have said, has sinned against us in this manner ; but those men whom he has studied to gratify, what has been their design ? Have they had the feelings of men wishing to do honour to Caesar ? Was there then a scarcity of temples in the city, the greatest and most import-

73 PHTLO JUDjEUS.

ant parts of which are all allotted to one or other of the gods. in which they might have erected any statues they pleased :' We have been describing the evidence of hostile and unfriendly men, who seek to injure us with such artifice, that even whet injuring us they may not appear to have been acting iniqui tously, and yet that we who are injured by them cannot resist with safety to ourselves ; for, my good men, it does not contribute to the honour of the emperor to abrogate the laws, to disturb the national customs of a people, to insult those who live in the same country, and to teach those who dwell in other cities to disregard unanimity and tranquillity.

VIII. Since, therefore, the attempt which was being made to violate the law appeared to him to be prospering, while he was destroying the synagogues, and not leaving even their name, he proceeded onwards to another exploit, namely, the, utter destruction of our constitution, that when all those things to which alone our life was anchored were cut away, namely, our national customs and our lawful political rights and social privileges, we might be exposed to the very extremity oi calamity, without having any stay left to which we could cling for safety, for a few days afterwards he issued a notice in which he called us all foreigners and aliens, without giving us an opportunity of being heard in our own defence, but condemning us without a trial ; and what command can be more full of tyranny than this?

He himself being everything — accuser, enemy, witness, judge, and executioner, added then to the two former appellations a third also, allowing any one who was inclined to proceed to exterminate the Jews as prisoners of war. So when the people had received this license, what did they do ? There are five districts in the city, named after the first five letters of the written alphabet, of these two are called the quarters of the Jews, because the chief portion of the Jews lives in them. There are also a few scattered Jews, but onlv a very few, living in some of the other districts. What then did they do ? They drove the Jews entirely out of four quarters, and crammed' them all into a very small portion of one ; and by reason of their numbers they were dispersed over the sea-shore, and desert places, and among the tombs, being deprived of all their property ; while the populace, overrunning their desolate houses, turned to plunder, and divided the booty among them-

selves as if they had obtained it in -war. And as no one hindered them, they broke open even the workshops of the Jews, which were all shut up because of their mourning for Drusilla,* and carried off all that they found there, and bore it openly through the middle of the market-place as if they had only been making use of their own property.

And the cessation of business to which they were compelled to submit was even a worse evil than the plunder to which i hey were exposed, as the consequence was that those who had lent money lost what they had lent, and as no one was permitted, neither farmer, nor captain of a ship, nor merchant, nor artisan, to employ himself in his usual manner, so that poverty was brought on them from two sides at once, both from rapine, as when license was thus given to plunder them they were stripped of everything in one day, and also from the circumstance of their no longer being able to earn money by their customary occupations.

IX. And though these were evils sufficiently intolerable, yet nevertheless they appear actually trifling when compared with those which were subsequently inflicted on them, for poverty indeed is a bitter evil, especially when it is caused by the machinations of one's enemies, still it is less than insult and personal ill treatment even of the slightest character. But now the evils which were heaped upon our people were so excessive and inordinate, that if a person were desirous to use appropriate language, he would never call them insults or assaults, but, as it appears to me, he-would actually be wholly at a loss for suitable expressions, on account of the enormity of the cruelties now newlv invented against them, so that if the treatment which men experience from enemies who have subdued them in war, however implacable they may be by nature, were to be compared with that to which the Jews were subjected, it would appear most merciful. Enemies, indeed, plunder their conquered foes of their money, and lead away multitudes in captivity, having incurred the same risk of losing all that they had if they themselves had been defeated. Not but that in all such cases there are very many persons for whom their relations and friends put down a ransom, and who are thus emancipated from captivity, inasmuch as though their

She was the sister of the emperor, and at her death her brother ordered that divine honours should be paid to her.

74 PHtLO JUD.EUS.

enemies could not be worked upon by compassion, they could by love of money.

But what is the use of going on in this way, some one will say, for as long as men escape from danger it signifies but little in what way their preservation is brought to pass ? Moreover, it has often happened that enemies have granted to those who have fallen in battle the honour of funeral rites, those wbo were gentle and humane burying them at their own expense, and those who have carried on their enmity even against the dead giving up their bodies to their friends under a truce, in order that they might not be deprived of the last honour of all, the customary ceremonies of sepulture.

This, then, is the conduct of enemies in time of war ; let us now see what was done by those who a little while before had been friends in time of peace.

For after plundering them of everything, and driving them from their homes, and expelling them by main force from most of the quarters of the city, our people, as if they were blockaded and hemmed in by a circle of besieging enemies, being oppressed by a terrible scarcity and want of necessary things, and seeing their wives and their children dying before their eyes by an unnatural famine (for every other place was full of prosperity and abundance, as the river had irrigated the corn-lands plentifully with its inundations, and as all the champaign country, which is devoted to the purposes of bearing wheat, was this year supplying a most abundant over-crop of corn with very unusual 'fertility), being no longer able to support their want, some, though they had never been used to do so before, came to the houses of their friends and relations to beg them to contribute such food as was absolutely necessary as a charity ; others, who from their high and free-born spirit could not endure the condition of beggars, as being a slavish state unbecoming the dignity of a freeman, came down into the market with no other object than, miserable men that they were, to buy food for their families and for themselves.

And then, being immediately seized by those who had excited the seditious multitude against them, they were treacherously put to death, and then were dragged along and trampled under foot by the whole city, and completely destroyed, without the least portion of them being left which could possibly receive burial ; and in this way their enemies, who in their savage

maduess had become transformed into the nature of wild beasts, slew them and thousands of others with all kinds of agony and tortures, and 'newly invented cruelties, for wherever they met with or caught sight of a Jew, they stoned him, or beat him with sticks, not at once delivering their blows upon mortal parts, lest they should die speedily, and so speedily escape from the sufferings which it was their design to inflict upon them.

Some persons even, going still greater and greater lengths in the iniquity and license of their barbarity, disdained all blunter weapons, and took up the most efficacious arms of all, fire and iron, and slew many with the sword, and destroyed not a few with flames. And the most merciless of all their persecutors in some instances burnt whole families, husbands with their wives, and infant children with their parents, in the middle of the city, sparing neither age nor youth, nor the innocent helplessness of infants. And when they had a scarcity of fuel, they collected faggots of green wood, and slew them by the smoke rather than by fire, contriving a still more miserable and protracted death for those unhappy people, so that their bodies lay about promiscuously in every direction half burnt, a grievous and most miserable sight.

And if some of those who were employed in the collection of sticks were too slow, they took their own furniture, of which they had plundered them, to burn their persons, robbing them of their most costly articles, and burning with them things of the greatest use and value, which they used as fuel instead of ordinary timber. Many men too, who were alive, they bound by one foot, fastening them round the ankle, and thus they dragged them along and bruised them, leaping on them, designing to inflict the most barbarous of deaths upon them, and then when they were dead they raged no less against them with interminable hostility, and inflicted still heavier insults on their persons, dragging them, I had almost said, through all the alleys and lanes of the city, until the corpse, being lacerated in all its skin, and flesh, and muscles from the inequality and roughness of the ground, all the previously united portions of his composition being torn asunder and separated from one another, was actually torn to pieces.

And those who did these things, mimicked the sufferers, like people employed in the representation of theatrical farces ;

70 PHILO JUDJEILS.

but the relations and friends of those -who were the real victims, merely because they sympathized with the misery of their relations, were led away to prison, were scourged, were tortured, and after all the ill treatment which their living bodies could endure, found the cross the end of all, and the punishment from which they could not escape.

X. But after Flaccus had broken through every right, and trampled upon every principle of justice, and had left no portion of the Jews free from the extreme severity of his designing malice, in the boundlessness of his wickedness he contrived a monstrous and unprecedented attack upon them, being ever an inventor of new acts of iniquity, for he arrested thirty-eight members of our council of elders, which our saviour and benefactor, Augustus, elected to manage the affairs of the Jewish nation after the death of the king of our own nation, having sent written commands to that effect to Manius Maximus when he was about to take upon himself for the second time the government of Egypt and of the country, he arrested them, I say, in their own houses, and commanded them to he thrown into prison, and arranged a splendid procession to send through the middle of the market-place a body of old men prisoners, with their hands bound, some with thongs and others with iron chains, whom he led in this plight into the theatre, a most miserable spectacle, and one wholly unsuited to the times. And then he commanded them all to stand in front of their enemies, who were sitting down, to make their disgrace the more conspicuous, and ordered them all to be stripped of their clothes and scourged with stripes, in a way that only the most wicked of malefactors are usually treated, and they were flogged with such severity that some of them the moment they were carried out died of their wounds, while others were rendered so ill for a long time that their recovery was despaired of.

And the enormity of this cruelty is proved by many other circumstances, and it will be further proved most evidentlv and undeniably by the circumstance which I am about to mention. Three of the members of this council of elders, Euodius, and Trvpho, and Audro, had been stripped of all their property, being plundered of everything that was in their houses at one onset, and he was well aware that they had been exposed to this treatment, for it had been related to him when

he had in the first instance sent for our rulers, under pretence of wishing to promote a reconciliation between them and the rest of the city ; but nevertheless, though he well knew that they had been deprived of all their property, he scourged them in the very sight of those who had plundered them, that thus they might endure the twofold misery of poverty and personal ill treatment, and that their persecutors might reap the double pleasure of enjoying riches which did in no respect belong to them, and also of feasting their eyes to satiety on the disgrace of those whom they had plundered.

Now, though I desire to mention a circumstance which took place at that time, I am in doubt whether to do so or not, lest if it should be looked upon as unimportant, it may appear to take off from the enormity of these great iniquities ; but even if it is unimportant in itself, it is nevertheless an indication of no trifling wickedness of disposition. There are different kinds of scourges used in the city, distinguished with reference to the deserts or crimes of those who are about to be scourged. Accordingly, it is usual for the Egyptians of the country themselves to be scourged with a different kind of scourge, and by a different class of executioners, but for the Alexandrians in the city to be scourged with rods by the Alexandrian lictors, and this custom had been preserved, in the case also of our own people, by all the predecessors of Flaccus, and by Flaccus himself in the earlier periods of his government ; for it is possible, it really is possible, even in ignominy, to find some slight circumstance of honour, and even in ill treatment to find something which is, to some extent, a relaxation, when any one allows the nature of things to be examined into by itself, and to be confined to its own indispensable requirements, without adding from his own ingenuity any additional cruelty or treachery, to separate and take from it all that is mingled with it of a milder character.

How then can it be looked upon as anything but most infamous, that when Alexandrian Jews, of the lowest rank, had always been previously beaten with the rods, suited to freemen and citizens, if ever they were convicted of having done anything worthy of stripes, yet now the very rulers of the nation, the council of the elders, who derived their very titles from the honour in which they were held and the offices which they filled, should, in this respect, be treated with more indig-

nity than their own servants, like the lowest of the Egyptian rustics, even when found guilty of the very worst of crimes ? I omit to mention, that even if they bad committed the most countless iniquities, nevertheless the governor ought, out of respect for the season, to have delayed their punishment ; for with all rulers, who govern any state on constitutional principles, and who do not seek to acquire a character for audacity, but who do really honour their benefactors, it is the custom to punish no one, even of those who have been lawfully condemned, until the famous festival and assembly, in honour of the birth-day of the illustrious emperor, has passed. But he committed this violation of the laws at the very season of this festival, and punished men who had done no wrong ; though certainly, if he ever determined to punish them, he ought to have done so at a subsequent time ; but he hastened, and would admit of no delay, by reason of his eagerness to please the multitude who was opposed to them, thinking that in this way he should be able, more easily, to gain them over to the objects which he had in view.

I have known instances before now of men who had been crucified when this festival and holiday was at hand, being taken down and given up to their relations, in order to receive the honours of sepulture, and to enjoy such observances as are due to the dead ; for it used to be considered, that even the dead ought to derive some enjoyment from the natal festival of a good emperor, and also that the sacred character of the festival ought to be regarded. But this man did not order men who had already perished on crosses to be taken down, but he commanded living men to be crucified, men to whom the very time itself gave, if not entire forgiveness, still, at all events, a brief and temporary respite from punishment; and he did this after they had been beaten by scourgings in the middle of the theatre ; and after he had tortured them with fire and sword ; and the spectacle of their sufferings was divided ; for the first part of the exhibition lasted from the morning to the third or fourth hour, in which the Jews were scourged, were hung up, were tortured on the wheel, were condemned, and were dragged to execution through the middle of the orchestra ; and after this beautiful exhibition came the dancers, and the buffoons, and the flute-players, and all the other diversions of the theatrical contests.

XI. And why do I dwell on these things? for a second mode of barbarity was afterwards devised against us, because the governor wished to excite the whole multitude of the army against us, in accordance with the contrivance of some foreign informer. Now the information which was laid against the nation was, that the Jews had entire suits of armour in their houses ; therefore, having sent for a centurion, in whom he placed the greatest confidence, by name Castor, he ordered him to take with him the boldest soldier of his own band, to go with haste, and, without saying a word to any one, to enter the houses of the Jews, and to search them, and see whether there was any store of arms laid up in them ; and he ran with great speed to perform the commands which had been given him. But they, having no suspicion of his intentions, stood at first speechless with astonishment, their wives and their children clinging to them, and shedding abundance of tears, because of their fear of being carried into captivity, for they were in continual expectation of that, looking upon it as all that was wanting to complete their total misery. But when they heard from some of those who were sent to make the search an inquiry as to where they had laid up their arms, they breathed awhile, and opening all their secret recesses displayed everything which they had, being partly delighted and partly grieving ; delighted at the opportunity of repelling the false accusation which was thus brought against tliem by its own character, but indignant, in the first place, because calumnies of such a nature, when concocted and urged against them by their enemies, were believed beforehand ; and, secondly, because their wives, who were shut up, and who did not actually come forth out of their inner chambers, and their virgins, who were kept in the strictest privacy, shunning the eyes of men, even of those who were their nearest relations, out of modesty, were now alarmed by being displayed to the public gaze, not only of persons who were no relations to them, but even of common soldiers.

Nevertheless, though a most rigorous examination took place, how great a quantity of defensive and offensive armour do you think was found ? Helmets, and breast-plates, and shields, and daggers, and javelins, and weapons of every description, were brought out and piled up in heaps ; and also how great a variety of missile weapons, javelins, slings, bows, and darts ?

Absolutely not a single tiling of the kind ; scarcely even knives sufficient for the daily use of the cooks to prepare and dress the food. From which circumstance, the simplicity of their daily manner of life was plainly seen: as they made no pretence to magnificence or delicate luxury ; the nature of which things is to engender satiety, and satiety is apt to engender insolence, which is the beginning of all evils.

And indeed it was not a long time before that, that the arms had been taken away from the Egyptians throughout the whole country by a man of the name of Bassus, to whom Flaccus had committed this employment. But at that time one might have beheld a great fleet of ships sailing down and anchoring in the harbours afforded by the mouths of the river, full of arms of every possible description, and numerous beasts of burden loaded with bags made of skins sewn together and hanging like panniers on each side so as to balance better, and also almost all the waggons belonging to the camp filled with weapons of every sort, whicn were brought in rows so as to be all seen at once, and arranged together in order. And the distance between the harbour and the armoury in the king's palace in which the arms were commanded to be deposited was about ten stadia ; it was then very proper to investigate the houses of the men who had amassed such quantities of arms ; for as they had often actually revolted, they were naturally liable to be suspected of designing revolutionary measures, and it was quite fitting that, in imitation of the sacred games, those who had superintended the collection of the arms should keep a new triennial festival in Egypt, iu order that they might not again be collected without any one being aware of it, or else that at all events only a few might be collected instead of a great number, from the people not having time enough to assemble any great number.

But why were we to be exposed to any treatment of the sort ? For when were we ever suspected of any tendency to revolt ? And when did we bear any other than a most peaceful character among all men? And the habits in which we daily and habitually indulge, are they not irreproachable, tending to the lawful tranquillity and stability of the state? In fact, if the Jews had had arms in their houses, would they have submitted to be stripped of above four hundred dwellings, out of which they were turned and forcibly expelled by those who plundered

them of all their properties ? Why then was not this search made in the houses of those people who had arms, if not of their own private property, at all events such as they had carried off from others ?

The truth is, as I have said already, the whole business was a deliberate contrivance designed by the cruelty of Flaccus and of the multitude, in which even women were included ; for they were dragged away as captives, not only in the marketplace, but even in the middle of the theatre, and dragged upon the stage on any false accusation that might be brought against them with the most painful and intolerable insults ; and then, when it was found that they were of another race, they were dismissed ; for they apprehended many women as Jewesses who were not so, from want of making any careful or accurate investigation. And if they appeared to belong to our nation, then those who, instead of spectators, became tyrants and masters, laid cruel commands on them, bringing them swine's flesh, and enjoining them to eat it Accordingly, all who were wrought on by fear of punishment to eat it were released without suffering any ill treatment ; but those who were more obstinate were given up to the tormentors to suffer intolerable tortures, which is the clearest of all possible proofs that they had committed no offence whatever beyond what I have mentioned.

XII. But it was not out of his own head alone, but also because of the commands and in consequence of the situation of the emperor that he sought and devised means to injure and oppress us ; for after we had decreed by our votes and carried out by our actions all the honours to the emperor Caius, which were either within our power or allowable by our laws, we brought the decree to him, entreating him that, as it was not permitted to us to send an embassy ourselves to bear it to the emperor, he would vouchsafe to forward it himself. And, after he had read all the articles contained in the decree, and having often nodded his head in token of his approbation of them, smiling, and being very much delighted, or else pretending to be pleased, he said : " I approve of you very greatly in all things, for your piety and lovalty, and I will forward it as you request, or else I myself will act the part of your ambassador, that Caius may be aware of your gratitude. And I myself will bear witness in your favour to all that I know of the

VOL. IV G

82 PHILO JUD-ffiUS.

orderly disposition and obedient character of your nation, without exaggerating anything ; for truth is the most sufficient of all panegyrics."

At these promises we were greatly delighted, and we gave him thanks, hoping that the decree would be thoroughly read and appreciated by Caius. And indeed it was natural enough, since all the things that are promptly and carefully sent by the lieutenant-governors are read and examined without delay by you ; but Flaccus, wholly neglecting all our hopes, and all his own words, and all his own promises, retained the decree, in order that you, above all the men under the sun, might be looked upon as enemies to the emperor.

Was not this the conduct of one who had been vigilant afar off, and who had long been contriving his design against us, and who was not now yielding to some momentary impulse, and attacking us on a sudden without any previous contrivance with unreasonable impetuosity, being led away by some fresh motive ? But God, as it seems, he who has a care for all human affairs, scattered his nattering speeches cunningly devised to mislead the emperor, and baffled the counsels of his lawless disposition and the manoeuvres which he was employing, taking pity on us, and very soon he brought matters into such a train that Flaccus was disappointed of his hopes.

For when Agrippa, the king, came into the country, we set before him all the designs which Flaccus had entertained against us ; and he set himself to rectify the business, and, having promised to forward the decree to the emperor, he taking it, as we hear, did send it, accompanied with a defence relating to the time at which it was passed, showing that it was not lately only that we had learnt to venerate the family of our benefactors, but that we had from the very first beginning shown our zeal towards them, though we had been deprived of the opportunity of making any seasonable demonstration of it by the insolence of our governor. And after these events justice, the constant champion and ally of those who are injured, and the punisher of everything impious, whether it be action or man, began to labour to work his overthrow. For at first they endured the most unexampled insults and miseries, such as had never happened under any other of our governors, ever since the house of Augustus first acquired the dominion over earth and sea ; for some men of those who, in the time of

Tiberius, and of Cassar his father, had the government, seeking to convert their governorship and viceroyalty into a sovereigntv and tyranny, filled all the country with intolerable evils, with corruption, and rapine, and condemnation of persons who had done no wrong, and with banishment and exile of such innocent men, and with the slaughter of the nobles without a trial ; and then, after the appointed period of their government had expired, when they returned to Rome, the emperors exacted of them an account and relation of all that they had done, especially if by chance the cities which they had been oppressing sent any embassy to complain ; for then the emperors, behaving like impartial judges, listening both to the accusers and to the defendant on equal terms, not thinking it right to pre-judge and pre-condemn anyone before his trial, decided without being influenced either by enmity or favour, but according to the nature of truth, and pronouncing such a judgment as seemed to be just. But in the case of Flaccus, that justice which hates iniquity did not wait till the term of his government had expired, but went forward to meet him before the usual time, being indignant at the immoderate extravagance of his lawless iniquity.

XIII. And the manner in which he was cut short in his tyranny was as follows. He imagined that Caius was already made favourable to him in respect of those matters, about which suspicion was sought to be raised against him, partly by his letters which were full of flattery, and partly by the harangues which he was continually addressing to the people, in which he courted the emperor by stringing together flattering sentences and long series of cunningly imagined panegyrics, and partly too because he was very highly thought of by the greater part of the city. But he was deceiving himself without knowing it ; for the hopes of wicked men are unstable, as they guess what is more favourable to them while they suffer what is quite contrary to it, as in fact they deserve. '

For Bassus, the centurion, was sent from Italy by the appointment of Caius with the company of soldiers which he commanded. And having embarked on board one of the fastest sailing vessels, he arrived in a few days at the harbour of Alexandria, off the island of Pharos, about evening ; and he ordered the captain of the ship to keep out in the open sea till

suuset, intending to enter the city unexpectedly, in order that Flaccus might not he aware of his coming beforehand, and so be led to adopt any violent measures, and render the service which he was commanded to perform fruitless.

And when the evening came, the ship entered the harbour, and Bassus, disembarking with his own soldiers, advanced, neither recognizing nor being recognized by any one ; and on his road finding a soldier who was one of the quaternions of the guard, he ordered him to show him the house of his captain ; for he wished to communicate his secret errand to him, that, if he required additional force, he might have an assistant ready.

And when he heard that he was supping at some person's house in company with Flaccus, he did not relax in his speed, but hastened onward to the dwelling of his entertainer; for the man with whom they were feasting was Stephanion, one of the freedmen of Tiberius Caesar ; and withdrawing to a short distance, he sends forward one of his own followers to reconnoitre, disguising him like a servant in order that no one might notice him or perceive what was going forward. So he, entering in to the banqueting-room, as if he were the servant of one of the guests, examined everything accurately, and then returned and gave information to Bassus. And he, when he had learnt the unguarded condition of the entrances, and the small number of the people who were with Flaccus (for he was attended by not more than ten or fifteen slaves to wait upon him), gave the signal to his soldiers whom he had with him, and hastened forward, and entered suddenly into the supperroom, he and the soldiers with him, who stood by with their swords girded on, and surrounded Flaccus before he was aware of it, for at the moment of their entrance he was drinking health with some one, and making merry with those who were present.

But when Bassus had made his way into the midst, the moment that he saw him he became dumb with amazement and consternation, and wishing to rise up he saw the guards all round him, and then he perceived his fate, even before he heard what Caius wanted with him, and what commands had been given to those who had come, and what he was about to endure, for the mind of man is very prompt at perceiving at once all those particulars which take a long time to happen, and at hearing them all together. Accordingly, every one of

those who were of this supper party rose up, being through fear unnerved, and shuddering lest some punishment might be affixed to the mere fact of having been supping with the culprit, for it was not safe to flee, nor indeed was it possible to do so, since all the entrances were already occupied. So Flaccus was led away by the soldiers at the command of Bassus, this being the manner in which he returned from the banquet, for it was fitting that justice should begin to visit him at a feast, because he had deprived the houses of innumerable innocent men of all festivity.

XIV. This was the unexampled misfortune which befell Flaccus in the country of which he was governor, being taken prisoner like an enemy on account of the Jews, as it appears to me, whom he had determined to destroy utterly in his desire for glory. And a manifest proof of this is to be found in the time of his arrest, for it was the general festival of the Jews at the time of the autumnal equinox, during which it is the custom of the Jews to live in tents ; but none of the usual customs at this festival were carried out at all, since all the rulers of the people were still oppressed by irremediable and intolerable injuries and insults, and since the common people looked upon the miseries of their chiefs as the common calamity of the whole nation, and were also depressed beyond measure at the individual afflictions to which they were each of them separately exposed, for griefs are redoubled when they happen at the times of festival, when those who are afflicted are unable to keep the feast, both by reason of the deprivation of their mirthful cheerfulness, which a general assembly requires, and also from the presence of sorrow by which they were now overcome, without being able to find any remedy for such terrible disasters.

And while they were yielding to excessive sorrow, and feeling overwhelmed by most severe anguish, and they were all collected in their houses at the approach of night, some persons came in to inform them of the apprehension of the governor which had then taken place. And they thought that this was to try them, and was not the truth, and were grieved all the more from thinking themselves mobbed, and that a snare was thus laid for them ; but when a tumult arose through the citv, and the guards of the night began to run about to and fro, and when some of the cavalry were heard to be galloping with the

86 PHILO JUI^EUS.

utmost speed and with all energy to the camp and from the camp, some of them, being excited by the strangeness of the event, went forth from their houses to inquire what had happened, for it was plain that something strange had occurred. And when they heard of the arrest that had taken place, and that Flaccus was now within the toils, stretching up their hands to heaven, they sang a hymn, and began a song of praise to God, who presides over all the affairs of men, saying, " We are not delighted, 0 Master, at the punishment of our enemy, being taught by the sacred laws to submit to all the vicissitudes of human life, but we justly give thanks to thee, who hast had mercy and compassion upon us, and who hast thus relieved our continual and incessant oppressions."

And when they had spent the whole night in hymns and songs, they poured out through the gates at the earliest dawn, and hastened to the nearest point of the shore, for they had been deprived of their usual places for prayer, and standing in a clear and open space, they cried out, " 0 most mighty King of all mortal and immortal beings, we have come to offer thanks unto thee, to invoke earth and sea, and the air and the heaven, and all the parts of the universe, and the whole world in which alone we dwell, being driven out by men and robbed of everything else in the world, and being deprived of our city, and of all the buildings both private and public within the city, and being made houseless and homeless by the treachery of our governor, the only men in the world who are so treated. You suggest to us favourable hopes of "the setting straight of what is left to us, beginning to consent to our prayers, inasmuch as you have on a sudden thrown down the common enemy of our nation, the author and cause of all our calamities, exulting in pride, and trusting that he would gain credit by such means, before he was removed to a distance from us, in order that those who were evilly afflicted might not feel their joy impaired by learning it only by report, but you have chastised him while he was so near, almost as we may say before the eyes of those whom he oppressed, in order to give us a more distinct perception of the end which has fallen upon him in a short time beyond our hopes."

XV. And besides what I have spoken of there is also a (bird thing, which appears to me to have taken place by the interposition of divine providence; for after he had set sail at

the beginning of winter, for it was rightly ordained that he should have his fill of the dangers of the sea, inasmuch as he had filled all the elements of the universe with his impieties, after suffering innumerable hardships he with difficulty got safely to Italy, and the moment that he had arrived there he was pursued by accusations which were brought against him, and which were brought before two of his greatest enemies, Isidorus and Lampo, who a little while before were in the position of subjects to him, calling him their master, and benefactor, and saviour, and names of that sort, but who now were his adversaries, and that too displaying a power not only equal to but far superior to his own, not merely from the confidence which men feel in the justice of their cause, but, what was a matter of great moment, because they saw that the Judge of all human affairs was his irreconcileable enemy, being about now to take upon himself the form of a judge from a prudent determination not to appear to condemn any one beforehand unheard, and not to act the part of an enemy, who before hearing either accusation or defence, has already condemned the defendant in his mind, and has sentenced him to the most severe punishments. But nothing is so terrible as for men who have been the more powerful to be accused by their inferiors, and for those who have been rulers to be impeached by their former subjects, which is as if masters were being prosecuted by their natural or purchased slaves.

XVI. And yet even this in my opinion was a lighter evil when compared with another which was greater still ; for it was not people who were merely in the simple rank of subjects who now, discarding that position and conspiring together, on a sudden attacked him with their accusations ; but those who did so were men who during the chief part of the time that he had had the government of the country had been in a position of the greatest enmity and hatred to him, Lampo having been under a prosecution for impiety against Tiberius Csesar, and having been almost worn out by the matter which had been thus impending over his head for two years ; for the judge who had a grudge against him caused all sorts of delays and every possible protraction of the cause on various pretexts, wishing even if he escaped from the accusation, at all events to keep the terror of the future as uncertain hanging over his head for the longest possible period, so as to make bis life more

miserable even than death. And then again when he seemed to have come off victorious, saying that he was insulted and injured in his property (for he was compelled to become a gymnasiai'ch), either by being economical and illiberal in his expenses, pretending that he had not sufficient wealth for such unlimited expenditure, or perhaps really not having enough ; but before he came to the trial, making a parade of being very rich, but when he did come to the proof then appearing not to be a man of exceeding wealth, having acquired nearly all the riches which he had by unjust actions.

For standing by the rulers when they gave judgment, he took notes of all that took place on the trial as if he were a clerk ; and then he designedly passed over or omitted such and such points, and interpolated other things which were not said. And at times, too, he made alterations, changing and altering, and perverting matters, and turning things up-side down, aiming to get money by every syllable, or, I might rather say, by every letter, like a hunter after musty records, whom the whole people with one accord did often with great felicity and propriety of expression call a pen-murderer, as slaying numbers of persons by the things which he wrote, and rendering the living more miserable than even the dead, as, though they might have got the victory and been in comfort, they were subjected to miserable defeat and poverty, their enemies having bought victory, and triumpb, and wealth, of a man who sold and made his market of the properties of others.

For it was impossible for rulers who had the charge of so vast a country entrusted to them, when affairs of every sort, both private and public, were coming in upon them fresh every day, to remember everything which they had heard, especially as they had not only to fill the part of judges, but also to take accounts of all the revenues and taxes, the investigation into which occupied the greater portion of the year. And the man to whom it was entrusted to take charge of that most important of all deposits, namely, justice, and of those most holy sentiments which had been delivered and urged before them, caused forgetfulness to the judges, registering those who ought to have had sentence in their favour as defeated, and those who ought to have been defeated as victorious, after the receipt of his accursed pay, or, to speak more properly, wages of iniquity.

XVII. Such, then, was the character of Larnpo, who was now one of the accusers of Flaccus.

And Isidorus was in no respect inferior to him in wickedness, being a man of the populace, a low demagogue, one who had continually studied to throw everything into disorder and confusion, an enemy to all peace and stability, very clever at exciting seditions and tumults which had no existence before, and at inflaming and exaggerating such as were already excited, taking care always to keep about him a disorderly and promiscuous mob of all the refuse of the people, ready for every kind of atrocity, which he had divided into regular sections as so many companies of soldiers.

There are a vast number of parties in the city whose association is founded in no one good principle, but who are united by wine, and drunkenness, and revelry, and the offspring of those indulgencies, insolence ; and their meetings are called synods and couches by the natives. In all these parties or the greater number of them Isidorus is said to have borne the bell, the leader of the feast, the chief of the supper, the disturber of the city. Then, whenever it was determined to do some mischief, at one signal they all went forth in a body, and did and said whatever they were told. And on one occasion, being indignant with Flaccus because, after he had appeared originally to be a person of some weight with him, he afterwards was no longer courted in an equal degree, having hired a gang of fellows from the training schools and men accustomed to vociferate loudly, who sell their outcries as if in regular market to those who are inclined to buy them, he ordered them all to assemble at the gymnasium ; and they, having filled it, began to heap accusations on Flaccus without any particular grounds, inventing all kinds of monstrous accusations and all sorts of falsehoods in ridiculous language, stringing long sentences together, so that not only was Flaccus himself alarmed but all the others who were there at this unexpected attack, and especially, as it may be conjectured, from the idea that there must certainly have been some one behind the scenes whom they were studying to gratify, since they themselves had suffered no evil, and since they were well aware that the rest of the city had not been ill-treated by him.

Then, after they had deliberated awhile, they determined to

90 PHILO JUDGED S.

apprehend certain persons of them and to inquire into the cause of this indiscriminate and sudden rage and madness. And the men who were arrested, without heing put to the torture, confessed the truth and added proofs to their words by what had been done, detailing the pay which had been agreed to be given to them, both that which had been already given and that which, in accordance with his promises, was subsequently to be paid, and the men who were appointed to distribute it as the leaders of the sedition, and the place where it was to break out, and the time when the giving of the bribes was to take place.

And when every one, as was very natural, was indignant at this, and when the city was mightily offended, that the folly of some individuals should attach to it so as to dim its reputation, Flaccus determined to send for some of the most honourable men of the people, and, on the next day to bring forward before them those who had distributed the bribes, that he might investigate the truth about Isidorus, and also that he might make a defence of his own system of government, and prove that he had been unjustly calumniated ; and when they heard the proclamation there came not only the magistrates but also the whole city, except that portion which was about to be convicted of having been the agents of corruption or the corrupted.

And they who had been employed in this honourable service, being raised up on the platform, that they might be elevated and conspicuous and be recognised by all men, accused Isidorus as having been the cause of all the tumults and of the accusations which had been brought against Flaccus, and as having given money and bribes to no small number of them by himself. " Since else," said they, " where could we have got such great abundance ? We are poor men, and are scarcely able to provide our daily expenses for absolute necessaries ; and what evil did we ever suffer from the governor, so as to be forced to bear him ill will ? Nay, but it is he who was the cause of all these things, the author of them all, he who is always envious of those who are in prosperity, -and an adversary of all stability and wholesome law."

And when those who were present came to the knowledge of these things, for what was thus said was a very evident proof and evidence of the intentions of the person accused,

tliey all raised an outcry, some calling out that he should be degraded, others that he should be banished, others that he should be put to death, and these last were the most numerous ; and the others changed their tone and joined them, so that at last they all cried out, with one accord and with one voice, to slay the common pest of the land, the man to whom it was owing that, ever since he had arrived in the country and taken any part in public affairs, no part of the city or of the common interests had ever been left in a sound or healthy condition ; and he, indeed, being convicted by his conscience, fled away in-doors, fearing lest he should be seized; but Flaccus did nothing against him, thinking that now that he had voluntarily removed himself, everything in the city would soon be free from sedition and contention.

XVIII. I have related these events at some length, not for the sake of keeping old injuries in remembrance, but because I admire that, power who presides over all freemen's affairs, namely, justice, seeing that those men who were so generally hostile to Flaccus, those by whom of all men he was most hated, were the men who now brought their accusations against him, to fill up the measure of his grief, for it is not so bitter merely to be accused as to be accused by one's confessed enemies ; but this man was not merely accused, though a governor, by his subjects, and that by men who had always been his enemies, when he had only a short time before been the lord of the life of every individual among^ them, but he was also apprehended by force, being thus subjected to a twofold evil, namely, to be defeated and ridiculed by exulting enemies, which is worse than death to all right-minded and sensible people.

And then see what an abundance of disasters came upon him, for he was immediately stripped of all his possessions, both of those which he inherited from his parents and of all that he had acquired himself, having been a man who took especial delight in luxury and ornament; for he was not like some rich men, to whom wealth is an inactive material, but he was continually acquiring things of every useful kind in all imaginable abundance ; cups, garments, couches, miniatures, and everything else which was any ornament to a house ; and besides that, he collected a vast number of servants, carefully selected for their excellencies and accomplishments, and

with reference to their beauty, and health, and vigour of body, and to their unerring skill in all kinds of necessary and useful service ; for every one of them was excellent in that employment to which he was appointed, so that he was looked upon as either the most excellent of all servants in that place, or, at all events, as inferior to no one.

And there is a very clear proof of this in the fact that, though there were a vast number of properties confiscated and sold for the public benefit, which belonged to persons who had been condemned, that of Flaccus alone was assigned to the emperor, with perhaps one or two more, in order that the law which had been established with respect to persons convicted of such crimes as his might not be violated.

And after he had been deprived of all his property, he was condemned to banishment, and was exiled from the whole continent, and that is the greatest and most excellent portion of the inhabited world, and from every island that has any character for fertility or richness ; for he was commanded to be sent into that most miserable of all the islands in the -rfEgaean Sea,* called Gyara, and he would have been left there if he had not availed himself of the intercession of Lepidus, by whose means he obtained leave to, exchange Gyara for Andros, which was very near it. Then he was sent back again on the road from Rome to Brundusium, a journey which he had taken a few years before, at the time when he was appointed governor of Egypt and the adjacent country of Lybia, in order that the cities which had then seen him exulting and behaving with great insolence in the hour of his prosperity, might now again behold him full of dishonour. And thus he being now become a conspicuous mark by reason of this total change of fortune, was overwhelmed with more bitter grief, his calamities being constantly re-kindled and inflamed by the addition of fresh miseries, which, like relapses in sickness, compel the recollection of all former disasters to return, which up to that time appeared to be buried in obscurity.'

XIX. And after he bad crossed the Ionian Gulf he sailed up the sea which leads to Corinth, being a spectacle to all the

This was a common place of banishment for criminals. Juvenal says-

Audc aliqiiid brevibus Qyaris, et carcere (lignum, Si vis esse aliquis.— i. 72.

AGAIXST FLACCDS. 93

cities in Peloponnesus which lie on the coast, when they heard of his sudden reverse of fortune; for when he disembarked from the vessel all the evil disposed men who bore him ill will ran up to see him, and others also came to sympathize with him — men who are accustomed to learn moderation from the misfortunes of others. And at Lechaeum, crossing over the isthmus into the opposite gulf, and having arrived at Cenchrese, the dockyard of the Corinthians, he was compelled by the guards, who would not permit him the slightest respite, to embark immediately on board a small transport and to set sail, and as a foul wind was blowing with great violence, after great sufferings he with difficulty arrived safe at the Piraeus.

And when the storm had ceased, having coasted along Attica as far as the promontory of Sunium,* he passed by all the islands in order, namely, Helena, and Ceanus, and Cythnos, and all the rest which lie in a regular row one after another, until at last he came to the point of his ultimate destination, the island of Andros, which the miserable man beholding afar off poured forth abundance of tears down his cheeks, as if from a regular fountain, and beating his breast, and lamenting most bitterly, he said, " Men, ye who are my guards and attendants in this my journey, I now -eceive in exchange for the glorious Italy this beautiful countrv of Andros, which is an unfortunate island for me. I, Flaccus, who was born, and brought up, and educated in Rome, the heaven of the world, and who have been the schoolfellow and companion of the granddaughters of Augustus, and who was afterwards selected by Tiberius Csesar as one of his most intimate friends, and who have had entrusted to me for six years the greatest of all his possessions, namely, Egypt. What a change is this ! In the middle of the day, as if an eclipse had come upon me, night has overshadowed my life. What shall I say of this little islet ? Shall I call it my place of banishment, or my new country, or harbour and refuge of misery ? A tomb would be the most proper name for it; for I, miserable that I am, am now in a manner conducted to my grave, attending my own funeral, for either I shall destroy my miserable life through my sorrow, or if I am able to cling to life among my miseries, I shall in that case find a distant death, which will be felt all the time of my life."

These, then, were the lamentations which he poured forth, * Now Cape Colonna.

and when the vessel came near the harbour he landed, stooping down to the very ground like men heavily oppressed, being weighed down by his calamities as if the heaviest of burdens was placed upon his neck, without being able to look up, or else not daring to do so because of the people whom he might meet, and of those who came out to see him and who stood on each side of the road. And those men who had conducted him hither, bringing the populace of the Andrians, exhibited him to them all, making them all witnesses of the arrival of the exile in their island.

And they, when they had discharged their office, departed; and then the misery of Flaccus was renewed, as he no longer beheld any sight to which he was accustomed, but only saw sad misery presented to him by the most conspicuous evidence, while he looked around upon what to him was perfect desolation, in the middle of which he was placed ; so that it seemed to him that a violent execution in his native land would have been a lighter evil, or rather, by comparison with his present circumstances, a most desirable good ; and he gave himself up to such violence of grief, that he was in no respect different from a maniac, and leaped about, and ran to and fro, and clapped his hands, and smote his thighs, and threw himself upon the ground, and kept continually crying out, " I am Flaccus ! who but a little while ago was the governor of the mighty city, of the populous city of Alexandria ! the governor of that most fertile of all countries, Egypt ! I am he on whom all those myriads of inhabitants turned their eyes ! who had countless forces of infantry, and cavalry, and ships, formidable, not merely by their number, but consisting of all the most eminent and illustrious of all my subjects ! I am he who was every day accompanied when I went out by countless companies of clients ! But now, was not all this a vision rather than reality ? and was I asleep, and was this prosperity which I then beheld a dream — phantoms marching through empty space, fictions of the soul, which perhaps registered nonexistent things as though they had a being? Doubtless, I have been deceived. These things were but a shadow and no real things, imitations of reality and not a real truth, which makes falsehood evident ; for as after we have awakened we find none of those things which appeared to us in our dreams, but all such things have fled in a body and disappeared, so too,

all that brilliant prosperity which I formerly enjoyed has now been extinguished in the briefest moment of time."

XX. With such discourses as these, he was continually being cast down, and in a manner, as I may say, prostrated ; and avoiding all places where he might be likely to meet with many persons on account of the shame which clung to him, he never went down to the harbour, nor could he endure to visit the market-place, but shut himself up in his house, where he kept himself close, never venturing to go beyond the outer court. But sometimes indeed, in the deepest twilight of the dawn, when every one else was still in bed, so that he could be seen by no one whatever, he would go forth out of the city and spend the entire day in the desolate part of the island, turning away if any one seemed likely to meet him ; and being torn as to his soul with the memorials of his misfortunes which he saw about him in his house, and being devoured with anguish, he went back home in the darkness of the night, praying, by reason of his immoderate and never-ending misery, that the evening would become morning, dreading the darkness and the strange appearances which represented themselves to him when he went to sleep, and again in the morning he prayed that it might be evening ; * for the darkness which surrounded him was opposed to everything light or cheerful.

And a few months afterwards, having purchased a small piece of land, he spent a great deal of his time there living by himself, and bewailing and weeping over his fate. It is said too, that often at midnight he became possessed like those who celebrate the rites of the Corybantes, and at such times he would go forth out of his farm-house and raise his eyes to heaven and to the stars, and beholding all the beauty really existing in the world, he would cry out, " 0 King of gods and men ! you are not, then, indifferent to the Jewish nation, nor are the assertions which they relate with respect to your providence false ; but those men who say that that people has not you for their champion and defender, are far from a correct

This is evidently taken from Deuteronomy xxviii. 66, "And thy life shall hang in doubt before thee ; and thou shalt fear day and night, and shalt have none assurance of thy life : in the morning thou shalt say, Would God it were even ! and at even thou shalt say, Would God it were morning ! for the fear of thine heart wherewith thou shalt fear, and for the sight of thine eyes which thou shalt see."

opinion. And I am an evident proof of this ; for all the frantic designs which I conceived against the Jews, I now suffer myself. I consented when they were stripped of their possessions, giving immunity to those who were plundering them ; and on this account I have myself been deprived of all my paternal and maternal inheritance, and of all that I have ever acquired by gift or favour, and of everything else that ever became mine in any other manner. In times past I reproached them with ignominy as being foreigners, though they were in truth sojourners in the land entitled to full privileges, in order to give pleasure to their enemies who were a promiscuous and disorderly multitude, by whom I, miserable man that I was, was flattered and deceived ; and for this I have been myself branded with infamy, and have been driven as an exile from the whole of the habitable world, and am shut up in this place. Again, I led some of them into the theatre, and commauded them to be shamelessly and unjustly insulted in the sight of their greatest enemies ; and therefore I justly have been myself led not into a theatre or into one city, but into many cities, to endure the utmost extremity of insult, being ill-treated in my miserable soul instead of my body ; for I was led in procession through the whole of Italy as far as Brundusium, and through all Peloponnesus as far as Corinth, and through Attica, and all the islands as far as Andros, which is this prison of mine ; and I am thoroughly assured that even this is not the limit of my misfortunes, but that others are still in store for me, to fill up the measure as a requital for all the evils which I have done. I put many persons to death, and when some of them were put to death by others, I did not chastise their murderers. Some were stoned ; some were burnt alive ; others were dragged through the middle of the market-place till the whole of their bodies were torn to pieces. And for all this I know now that retribution awaits me, and that the avengers are already standing as it were at the goal, and are pressing close to me, eager to slay me, and every day, or I may rather say, every hour, I die before my time, enduring many deaths instead of one, the last of all"

This is like the passage in Shakespeare —

Cowards die many times before their deaths ; The brave men only taste of death but once."

And he was continually giving way to dread and to apprehension, and shaking with fear in every limb and every portion of his body, and his whole soul was trembling with terror and quivering with palpitation and agitation, as if nothing in the world could possibly be a comfort to the man now that he was deprived of all favourable hopes ; no good omen ever appeared to him, everything bore a hostile appearance, every report was ill-omened, his waking was painlul, his sleep fearful, his solitude resembling that of wild beasts, nevertheless the solitude of his herds was what was most pleasant to him, any dwelling in the city was his greatest affliction; his safe reproach was a solitary abiding in the fields, a dangerous, and painful, and unseemly way of life ; every one who approached him, however justly, was an object of suspicion to him. " This man," he would say, " who is coming quickly hither, is planning something against me, he does not look as if he were hastening for any other object, but he is pursuing me ; this pleasant looking man is laying a snare for me ; this free-spoken man is despising me ; this man is giving me meat and drink as they feed cattle before killing them. How long shall I, hard-hearted that I am, bear up against such terrible calamities? I well know that I am afraid of death, since out of cruelty the Deity will not punish me violently, to cut short my miserable life, in order to load me to excess with irremediable miseries, which he treasures up against me, to do a pleasure to those whom I treacherously put to death."

XXI. While l-epeating these things over and over again and writhing with his agony, he awaited the end of his destiny, and his uninterrupted sorrow agitated, and disturbed, and overturned his soul. But Caius, being a man of an inhuman nature and insatiable in his revenge, did not, as some persons do, let go those who had been once punished, but raged against them without end, and was continually contriving some new and terrible suffering for them ; and, above all men, he hated Flaccus to such a degree, that he suspected all who bore the same name, from his detestation of the very appellation ; and he often repented that he had condemned him to banishment and not to death, and though he had a great respect for Lepidus who had interceded for him, he blamed him, so that he was kept in a state of great alarm from fear of punishment YOL. IV. H

impending over hiin, for he feared lest, as was very likely, he, because he had been the cause of another person having been visited by a lighter punishment, might himself have a more severe one inflicted upon him.

Therefore, as no one any longer ventured to say a word by way of deprecating the anger of the emperor, he gave loose to his fury, which was now implacable and unrestrained, and which, though it ought to have been mitigated by time, was rather increased by it, just as recurring diseases are in the body when a relapse takes place, for all such relapses are more grievous than the original attacks.

They say that on one occasion Caius, being awake at night, began to turn his mind to the magistrates and officers who were in banishment, and who in name indeed were looked upon as unfortunate, but who in reality had now thus acquired a life free from trouble, and truly tranquil and free. And he gave a new name to this banishment, calling it an emigration, " For," said he, " it is only a kind of emigration the banishment of these men, inasmuch as they have all the necessaries of life in abundance, and are able to live in tranquillity, and stability, and peace. But it is an absurdity for them to be living in luxury, enjoying peace, and indulging in all the pleasures of a philosophical life."

Then he commanded the most eminent of these men, and those who were of the highest rank and reputation, to be put to death, giving a regular list of their names, at the head of which list was Flaccus. And when the men arrived at Andros, who had been oommanded to put him to death, Flaccus happened, just at that moment, to be coming from his farm into the city, and they, on their way up from the port, met him, and while yet at a distance they perceived and recognised one another ; at which he, perceiving in a moment the object for which they were come (for every man's soul is very prophetic, especially of such as are in misfortune), turning out of the road, fled and ran away over the rough ground, forgetting, perhaps, that Andros was an island and not the continent. And what is the use of speed in an island which the sea washes all round ? for one of two thiugs must of necessity happen, either that if the fugitive advances further he must be carried into the sea, or else arrested when he has reached the farthest boundary. Therefore, in a comparison of evils, destruc-

ticra by land must be preferable to destruction by sea, since nature has made the land more closely akin to man, and to all terrestrial animals, not only while they are alive, but even after they are dead, in order that the same element may receive both their primary generation and their last dissolution.

The officers therefore pursued him without stopping to take breath and arrested him ; and then immediately some of them dug a ditch, and the others dragged him on by force in spite of all his resistance and crying out and struggling, by which means his whole body was wounded like that of beasts that are despatched with a number of wounds ; for he, turning round them and clinging to his executioners, who were hindered in their aims which they took at him with their swords, and who thus struck him with oblique blows, was the cause of his own sufferings being more severe ; for he was in consequence mutilated and cut about the hands, and feet, and head, and breast, and sides, so that he was mangled like a victim, and thus he fell, justice righteously inflicting on his own body wounds equal in number to the murders of the Jews whom he had unlawfully put to death.

And the whole place flowed with blood which was shed from his numerous veins, which were cut in every part of his body, and which poured forth blood as from a fountain. And when the corpse was dragged into the trench which had been dug, the greater part of the limbs separated from the body, the sinews by which the whole of the body is kept together being all cut through.

Such was the end of Flaccus, who suffered thus, being made the most manifest evidence that the nation of the Jews is not left destitute of the providential assistance of God.

THE VIRTUES AND ON THE OFFICE OF AMBASSADORS. ADDRESSED TO CAIUS.

I. How long shall we, who are aged men, still be like children, being indeed as to our bodies gray-headed through the length of time that we have lived, but as to our souls utterly

infantine through our want of sense and sensibility, looking upon that which is the most unstable of all things, namely, fortune, as most invariable, and that which is of all things in the world the most steadfast, namely, nature, as utterly untrustworthy ? For, like people playing at draughts, we make changes, altering the position of actions, and considering the things which are the result of fortune as more durable than those which result from nature, and the things which proceed in accordance with nature as less stable than those which are the result of chance. And the reason of all this is, that we form our judgment of present events without paying any prudential attention to the future, being influenced by the erroneous guidance of our outward senses instead of the secret operations of the intellect ; for the things which are openly conspicuous and before our hands so as to be taken up by them, are comprehended by our eyes, but our reasoning power outstrips them, hastening onwards to what is invisible and future ; but nevertheless, we obscure the vision of our reason, though it is far more acute than those bodily powers of sight which are exercised by the eyes, some of us confusing it by indulgence in wine and satiety, and others by that greatest of all evils, namely, ignorance.

Nevertheless, the existing opportunity and the many and important propositions which arise to be decided on at the present time, even if some people should be incredulous that the Deity exercises a providential foresight with regard to human affairs, and especially on behalf of a nation which addresses its supplications to him, which belongs especially to the father and sovereign of the universe, and the great cause of ail things ; and these propositions are sufficient to persuade them of this truth.

And this nation of suppliants is in the Chaldaic language called Israel, but when the name is translated into the Greek language it is called, " the seeing nation ;" which appellation appears to me to be the most honourable of all things in the world, whether private or public ; for if the sight of elders, or instructors, or rulers, or parents, excites those who behold them to reverence and orderly conduct, and to an admiration of and desire for a life of moderation and temperance, how great a bulwark of virtue and excellence must we not expect * There seems same corruption in the text here.

to find in those souls which, after having investigated the nature of every created thing, have learnt to contemplate the uncreated and Divine Being, the first good of all, the one beautiful, and happy, and glorious, and blessed being ; better, if one is to tell the plain truth, than the good itself; more beautiful than the beautiful itself ; more happy than happiness itself; more blessed than blessedness itself; and, in short, if anything else in the world is so, more perfect than any one of the above-mentioned things.

For reason cannot make such advances as to attain to a thorough comprehension of God, who can neither be touched nor handled ; but it withdraws from and falls short of such a height, being unable to employ appropriate language as a step towards the manifestation (I will not say of the living God, for even if the whole heaven were to become endowed with articulate voice, it would not be furnished with felicitous and appropriate expressions to do justice to such a subject); but even of his subordinate powers, those, for instance, by which he created the world and by which he reigns over it as its king, and by which he foresees the future, and all his other beneficent, and chastising, and corrective powers. Unless, indeed, we ought to class his correction among his beneficent powers, not only because such a display is a portion of his laws and ordinances (for law is made up of two things, the honour of the good, and the chastisement of the wicked), but also because punishment reproves, and very often even corrects, and ameliorates those who have done wrong ; and if it fails to do go with respect to them, at all events it does so to those who are near the offenders thus punished ; for the punishment of others makes most men better, for fear lest they themselves should suffer the same things.

II. For who — when he saw Caius, after the death of Tiberius Caesar, assuming the sovereignty of the whole world in a condition free from all sedition, and regulated by and obedient to admirable laws, and adapted to unanimity and harmony in all its parts, east and west, south and north ; the barbarian nations being in harmony with the Greeks, and the Greeks with the barbarians, and the soldiers with the body of private citizens, and the citizens with the military ; so that they all partook of and enjoyed one common universal peace — could fail to marvel at and be amazed at his extraordinary and unspeakable good

10-2 PHILO JTB.EUS

fortune, since he hs". thas - . i iw inherit-

anoe of all good things. dqHc .-ether as it were in one

b • namely, to numerous and vast treasures of money, ana silver and gold, some in bullion, and some in coined mc: and some again being devoted to articles of luxury, in drinking cups and other vessels, -which are made for display and magnificence : and also countless hosts uf troops, infantiy. and cavalry, and naval forces, and revenues which were supplied in a never-ending scream as from a fountain : and the £nty of the most numerous, and most valuable, and important portions of the habitable world, which in fact one may fairly call the whole world, being not only all that is bounded by the two rivers, the Euphrates and the Pihine : the one of which confines Germany and all the more uncivilised nations ; and the Euphrates, on the other hand, bridles Parthia and the nations of the Sarmatians and Scythians, which are not I -- barbarous and uncivilised than the Germanic tribes : but. even as I - fore, all the world, from the rising to the setting

sun. all the land in short on this side of the Ocean and beyond the Ocean, at which all the Roman people and all Italy rejoiced, and even all the Asiatic and European nations.

For as they had never yet all together admired any emperor who had ever existed at that time, not expecting to have in ire the r se as :n. and use. and enjoyment of all private and public good things, but thinking that they actually had them already as a sort of superfluity of prosperity which happiness was waiting to fill to the brim : accordingly now t: was nothing else to be seen in anv eitv. but altars, and victims. and sacrifices, and men clothed in white garments, aud crowned with garlands, and wearing cheerful countenances, and displaying their joy by the brightness of their looks, and festivals, and se mblies, and musical contests, and horse-races, and revels. and feasts lasting the whole night long, with the music of the flute and of the lyre, and rejoicings, and holidays, and traces, and every kind of pleasure addressed to every one of senses.

On this occasion the rich were not better off than the poor, nor the men of high rank than the lowly, nor the creditors than the debtors, nor the masters than the slaves, since the occasion gave equal privileges and communities to all men. so that the age of Saturn, which is so celebrated by the poets

ON* THE VIRTUES AXD OFFICE OF AitBASSADOFS. 103

was no longer looked upon as a fiction and a fable,* on account of the universal prosperity and happiness which reigned every where, and the absence of all grief and fear, and the dailv and nightly exhibitions of iov and festivity throughout every house and throughout the whole people, which k continually without any interruption during the first seven months of his reign.

But in the eighth month a severe disease attached Caius who had changed the manner of his living which was a little while before, while Tiberius was alive, very simple and on that account more wholesome than one of great sumptuousness and luxury ; for he began to indulge in abundance of si: . wine and eating of rich dishes, and in the abundant license of insatiable desires and great insolence, and in the unseasonable use of hot baths, and emetics, and then again in wine-bit I... _• and drunkenness, and returning gluttony, and in lust after boys and women, and in everything eke which tends to destroy both soul and body, and all the bonds which unite and strengthen the two ; for the rewards of temperance are health and strength, and the wages of intemperance are weakness and disease waich bring a man near to death.

III. Accordingly, when the news was spread abroad that he was sick while the weather was still suitable for navigation (for it was the beginning of the autumn, which k the last season during which nautical men can safelv take vovages. and during which in conseqience they all return from the foreign marts in every quarter to their own native ports and harbours of refuge, especially all who exercise a prudent care not to be compelled to pass the winter in a foreign country) ; thev, forsaking their former Life of delicateness and luxury, now wore mournful faces, and every house and every city became full of depression and melancholy, their grief being now equal to and counterbalancing the joy which they experienced a short time before. For every portion of the habitable world was diseased in his sickness, feeling affected with a more terrible disease

The golden age was said to Lave existed during the reign of Sa: m upon earth. So Tibullus says —

Quain beae vivebant Saturno rege, priusquam Tellus in longas est patefacta vias.

And Virgil —

Aureus banc vitan in terris Saturnus agebct

than that which was oppressing Caius ; for his sickness was that of the body alone, but the universal malady which was oppressing all men every where was one which attacked the vigour of their souls, their peace, their hopes, their participation in and enjoyment of all good things ; for men began to remember how numerous and how great are the evils which spring from anarchy, famine, and war, and the destruction of trees, and devastations, and deprivation of lands, and plundering of money, and the intolerable fear of slavery and death, which no one can relieve, all which evils appeared to admit of but one remedy, namely the recovery of Caius.

Accordingly when his disease began to abate, in a very short time even the men who were living on the very confines of the empire heard of it and rejoiced, for nothing is swifter than report,* and immediately every city was full of suspense and expectation, being continually eager for better news, until at length his perfect recovery was announced by fresh arrivals, at which news they again returned to their original cheerfulness, each thinking the health of Caius to be his own salvation ; and this feeling pervaded every continent and every island, for no one can recollect so great and general a joy affecting any one country or any one nation, at the good health or prosperity of their governor, as now pervaded tli3 whole of the habitable world at the recovery of Caius, and at his being able to resume the exercise of his power and having completely got rid of his sickness.

For they all rejoiced, from ignorance of the truth, like men who are now for the first time beginning to exchange a wandering and uncivilised mode of life for a social and civilised system, and instead of dwelling in desert places, and the open air, and the mountain districts, to live in walled cities, and instead of living without any governor, or protector, or lawgiver, , to be now established under the care of a governor to be a sort I of shepherd and leader of a more domesticated flock ; for the human mind is apt to be blind towards the perception of what is really expedient and beneficial for it, being influenced rather by conjecture and notions of probability than by real knowledge.

IV. At all events it was not long befo'e Caius — who was

So Virgil says — •

Fama malum quo iion aliud velocius ullum— iEn. iv. 174.

now looked upon as a saviour and benefactor, and who was expected to shower down some fresh and everlasting springs of benefits upon all Asia and Europe, so as to endow the inhabit- ' ants with inalienable happiness and prosperity, both separately to each individual and generally to the whole state — began, as the proverb has it, at home, and changed into a ferocity of disposition, or, I should rather say, displayed the savageness l which he had previously overshadowed by pretence and hypocrisy ; for he put to death his cousin who had been left as the partner of his kingdom, and who was in fact a more natural successor to it than he himself; for he himself was only Tibei rius's grandson by adoption, but the other was so by blood ; arguing as a pretext that he had detected him in plotting against him, though his very age was a sufficient refutation of any such accusation ; for the unhappy victim was only just emerging from boyhood, and beginning to rank among the youths. And, as some persons say, if Tiberius had lived a short time longer, Caius would have been made away with, as he began to be looked upon by him with unalterable suspicion, and tbe genuine grandson of Tiberius would have been named the future emperor, and the inheritor of his paternal kingdom.

But Tiberius was carried off by fate, before he could bring his designs to their completion ; and Caius thought that he should be able to escape all evil report which might arise from his transgressing the principles of justice with respect to his partner by outwitting him. And the contrivance which he adopted was of the following character. Having assembled all the chief magistrates, he said : " I am desirous that he who is my cousin by birth and my brother in affection, in accordance with the instruction of Tiberius who is now dead, shall be a partner with me in my absolute authority. But you yourselves perceive that he is as yet a mere child, and that he is in need of masters, and teachers, and guardians ; since what can be a more desirable blessing for me than that ray one mind and one body shall not be loaded with so great a weight of the cares of government, but for me to have some one who may be able to lighten and alleviate them by sharing them '? I, therefore," said he: "passing over and being superior to all tutors, and masters, and guardians, register myself as his father, and him as my son."

V. With these words he deceived both those who were

present and the youth himself; for his proposal was a mere bait, his intention being not to invest him with the power which he expected, but to deprive him of even that which he already had, according to the law affecting co-heirs and partners ; and accordingly now he plotted against him with absolute fearlessness, having no regard for nor fear of any one ; for by the laws of the Romans the most complete and absolute authority over the son belongs to the father, besides the fact of Caius having the imperial authority which was wholly irresponsible, since no one could either venture or had any power to demand an account from him of any thing whatever that he might do.

Accordingly, looking upon this youth to be like a thirds-man in the games, he proceeded to overthrow him, feeling no compassion, either for the fact of his having been brought up with him, or his being so nearly related to him, or for his age, but having no idea of sparing this miserable youth, doomed to an early death ; his own partner in the government, his co-heir, who had formerly been expected to be all but the absolute emperor, by reason of his being the nearest relation to Tiberius ; for when their fathers are dead, the grandsons are usually looked upon by their grandfathers as standing in the position of sons.

It is said moreover, that this youth, being ordered to slay himself with his own hands, while a centurion and a captain of a thousand were standing by (who had been expressly commanded to take no part in the horrid deed, since it was not lawful for the descendants of the emperors to be put to death by any one else ; for Caius remembered the laws amid his I lawless acts, and had some regard for piety in all his impious deeds, imitating as well as he could the nature of truth) ; he, not knowing how to kill himself, for he had never seen any one else put to death, and had never had any practice in fighting with weapons, which is the usual exercise and course of instruction for children who are being educated with a view to become leaders and rulers, on account of the wars which they may have to conduct, at first exhorted those officers who had come to him to put him to death themselves, stretching out his neck ; but when they did not dare to do so, he himself taking the sword inquired in his ignorance and want of experience what was the most mortal place, in order that by

a well-directed blow he might cut short his miserable life ; and they, like instructors in misery, led him on his way, and pointed out to him the part into which he was to thrust his sword ; and he, having thus learnt his first and. last lesson, became himself, miserable that he was, his own murderer under compulsion.

VI. But when this first and greatest undertaking had been accomplished by Caius, there being no longer left any one who had any connexion with the supreme authority, to whom any one who bore him ill-will, and who was suspected by him, could possibly turn his eyes ; he now, in the second place, proceeded to compass the death of Macro, a man who had cooperated with him in every thing relating to the empire, not only after he had been appointed emperor, for it is a characteristic of flattery to court those who are in a state of prosperity, but who had previously assisted hini in his measures for securing that authority.

For Tiberius, who was a man of very profound prudence, and the most able of all the men of his court at perceiving the hidden intentions of any man, and who was as pre-eminent in intelligence and acuteness as he was in good fortune, did very often look with suspicion upon Caius as being evil disposed towards all the house of Claudius, and as being related to him only on the mother's side,* and he feared for his grandson, lest he, being left a mere child, should be put to death by him. And he judged him, moreover, very little fitted for an authority of such magnitude, both on account of the unsociableness and ferocity of his nature, and the inequality of his temper ; for he was continually giving way to the most frantic and most inconsistent moods, not preserving any consistency either in his words or in his actions ; all which Macro studied with all his strength at every opportunity, pacifying the suspicious of Tiberius and all the prejudices with which he perceived that his mind was inflamed against Caius by reason of his ceaseless fear and anxiety for his grandson.

For he represented to him, that Caius was a person of a good and obedient disposition, and one who entertained the greatest affection for his cousin, so that out of his exceeding regard for him he would be willing even to abandon the government and to yield it up to him by himself, but that * Caligula was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina.

108 PHTLO JUD.EUS.

excessive modesty was anything but advantageous to many persons, in consequence of which Caius, who was of a most guileless and single-minded disposition, was looked upon by many as crafty and designing.

And when he could not persuade him, by all the arguments drawn from probabilities which he advanced, he brought forward that which rested upon specific agreements, adding, " I myself will be his security, I who deserve to have confidence placed in me, inasmuch as I have given sufficient proof that I myself am individually a friend to Caesar, and a friend to Tiberius, since it was I who carried into execution, your intentions respecting the downfall of Sejanus.

And, in short, he was very assiduous, and energetic, and comprehensive in his praises of Caius, if, indeed, one may speak of speeches in defence of a man as equivalent to panegyrics on him, which were rather addressed to the doing away with the unfavourable impressions and suspicions, excited by obscure and indistinct hints and accusations. In short, all the things which any one could say on behalf of any brother or legitimate child, such and more too did Macro say to Tiberius in behalf of Caius. And the cause of this was according to the report which obtain d among the generality of people, not only that Macro had, on the other hand, been greatly courted by him, as one who had the greatest, or, indeed, all the power under the empire ; but also that Macro's wife was favourable to him, for a reason which ought not to be mentioned, and she every day urged on, and encouraged, and entreated her husband to omit no exertion of his zeal and energy on behalf of the young man. And a wife is a very powerful engine to divert or to persuade the mind of her husband, especially if she be one of an amorous temperament, for

because of her own consciousness she becomes more given to flattery.

And Macro, being ignorant of the dishonour done to his marria<?e-bed and to his family, and looking upon her flattery as a proof of her sincere good will and affection for him, was deceived, and without being, aware of it was led, by her intrigues, to embrace his bitterest enemies as his best friends.

VII. Therefore, as he knew that he had preserved him ten thousand times, when he was in the most imminent danger of being put to death, he used to offer him undisguised, sincere,

I

and honest admonitions and advice, with perfect freedom of speech ; for, like a good workman, he was desirous that what he looked upon as his own work should remain uninjured and indestructible, without being put an end to, either by himself or by any one else ; therefore, whenever he saw him sleeping at any entertainment he would go round and awaken him, having, at the same time, a regard for what was becoming and also for his safety, for a man who is asleep is a good object for treachery ; and whenever he beheld him looking with an excited eye at any dancers, or even sometimes dancing with them, or not smiling with dignity upon actors of farcical and laughable spectacles, but rather grinning like a boy, or wholly carried away by the tunes of some harp-player or chorus, so as on some occasions even to join in their song, he would, if he w7as sitting or going near him, give him a nudge, and endeavour to check him.

And very often, when he was reclining near him, he would whisper in his ear, and admonish him gently and quietly, so that no one else might hear what was said, saying, " You ought not only not to be like any one else here, but like no one else whatever, neither at any spectacle, or at anything that is to be heard, or in anything else that ever affects the outward senses, but you ought rather to surpass all other men in every action of your life, as much as you surpass them in your good fortune, for it is unreasonable for the ruler of all the earth and of all the sea to bo subdued by a song or by an exhibition of dancing, or by any ridiculous jest or piece of acting, or by anything else of that kind ; and not on every occasion, and in every place, to remember his position as emperor, like a shepherd and protector of the flock, availing himself of everything that can tend to any kind of amelioration, from every word, and from every action, of every description whatever."

Then again he would add, " When you are present at any theatrical contest, or at any gymnastic games, or at any of the contests in the hippodrome, do not consider the pursuits themselves so much as the behaving correctly in all such pursuits, and entertain thoughts of this nature : if some men labour in this manner to bring to perfection things that can in no respect benefit human life, but which only afford pleasure and amusement to the spectators, in such a way as to be praised

and admired, and to receive rewards, and honours, and crowns, and to have their names proclaimed as conquerors ; what ought that man to do who is skilful in the most sublime and most important of all arts ? Now the greatest and most excellent of all sciences is the science of government, by means of which every country which is good and fertile, whether it be champaign or mountainous, is cultivated, and every sea is navigated without danger by heavily-laden merchantvessels, to communicate to the different countries the useful productions of each, out of a natural desire for participation and association, so that each land receives what it stands in need of, and sends abroad in requital those good things of which it has a superfluity ; for envy has never obtained a dominion over the whole of the habitable world, nor even over those great divisions of it, the whole of Europe or the whole of Asia, but it lurks in holes like a venomous reptile, creeping out in small districts to attack an individual man, or a single family, or, if it is very violent and powerful, perhaps one city ; but it never attacks a larger circle of a whole nation or a whole country, | especially ever since your august family has really begun to I rule over all men in every part of the world.

" For your house has discovered and brought to light everything that is good, even in the midst of evils, and has banished all evils to the extremities of the earth, and beyond its borders to the very depths of Tartarus, and has brought back, from the most distant borders of the earth and sea, those profitable and beneficial things which were in a manner banished into the habitable world around us ; and now all these things are entrusted to your power, to be governed by your authority.

" Accordingly you, having been conducted by nature to the supreme helm of the world, and having the government of everything placed in your hand, must guide the universal ship ! of all mankind in a safe and salutary manner, rejoicing and ' delighting in nothing more than in doing good to your subjects ; for different people have different contributions to bestow, which individuals necessarily offer in their several cities. But the most suitable gift for a ruler to give is to adopt wise counsels with respect to those who are subject to his authority, and to execute intentions which have been rightly formed, and to bestow on them good things without any limitation, with a liberal hand and mind, except such as it may be

ON THE VIRTUES AND OFFICE OF AMBASSADORS. Ill

better to keep in reserve from a prudent foreknowledge of the uncertainty of the future."

VIII. The unhappy man kept dinning suggestions of this kind into his ears in the hope of improving Caius ; but he, being a contentious and quarrelsome person, turned his mind in the directly opposite direction, as if he were exhorted to do exactly the contrary, and he conceived a most determined disgust for his monitor, so as never to behold him with a cheerful countenance ; and sometimes when he saw him at a distance he would speak as follows to those near him : " Here comes the teacher of one who has no longer any right to be looked upon as a pupil ; — here comes the pedagogue of one who is no longer a child, the monitor of one who is wiser than himself, the man who thinks it proper that the emperor should obey his subject, who sets himself up as a man deeply versed by experience in the science of government, and as a teacher of it, though from whom he has learnt the principles of sovereign government I know not ; for from the moment that I left my cradle, I have had ten thousand instructors, fathers, brothers, uncles, cousins, and grandfathers, up to the very founders of my family, in fact every one related to me either on my father's or my mother's side, who had acquired absolute power for themselves, even without taking into consideration the fact that, by their being the authors of my being, they had implanted in me some degree of royal power and some natural aptitude for government. For as similitudes of both body and soul exist both in the form, and position, and motions of men, and also as the inclinations, and dispositions, and actions of men are preserved in some degree of similitude through the principles of descent, so also is it probable that the very same principles should convey an outline of similitude in respect of one's aptitude for government. Shall any one, then, who is ignorant dare to instruct me who am the reverse of ignorant ? me who, even before my birth, while I was yet in my mother's womb, was fashioned as an emperor in the workshop of nature ? For how can it be possible for persons, who but a short time before were private individuals, to contemplate as they should the intentions of an imperial soul ? But some persons in their shameless audacity dare to put themselves forward as interpreters and perfecters of the principles of government, when

in reality they scarcely ought to be enrolled among those who have any understanding whatever of the matter."

And as he thus diligently laboured to alienate himself from Macro, he began also to invent false but plausible and specious grounds for blaming and accusing him; for passionate and irritable natures, especially when belonging to powerful | men, are very ingenious at weaving plausibilities. Now, the pretexts which he made use of against him were of the following natures. Pie said Macro thought thus: " Caius is my work ; the work of Macro. I am more truly, or at all events not less truly, his father than his own parents. He would have been destroyed, over and over again, by Tiberius, who thirsted for his blood, if it had not been for me and for my powers of persuasion. And moreover, when Tiberius was dead, I, who had under my command the whole force of the army, immediately placed him in the position which Tiberius had occupied, teaching him that the state had indeed sustained a loss of one man, but that the imperial authority continued unaltered, as entire as ever."

And many people have given credit to these assertions of of his as if they were true, not being acquainted with the false and crafty disposition of the speaker ; for hitherto the dishonest and designing character of his disposition was not made . manifest. But a few days afterwards the miserable man was I put to death, with his wife, receiving the extremity of punishment as a reward for his exceeding good will towards his slayer. This is the consequence of doing kindnesses to ungrateful people ; for in return for the benefits which they have received, they inflict the greatest of injuries on those from whom they have received them. Accordingly, Macro, who had done everything in sincerity with the most earnest eagerness and zeal for the good of Caius, in the first place in order to save him from death, and afterwards in order that he by himself might succeed to the imperial authority, received for his reward the fate which I have mentioned.

For it is said that the wretched man was compelled to kill himself with his own hand ; and his wife, too, experienced the same misery, even though she indeed had at one time been believed to be on the most intimate terms of familiarity with Caius ; but they say that none of the allurements of love are

stable and trustworthy because it is a passion which quickly breeds satiety.

IX. But after Macro and all his house had been sacrificed, Caius then began to design a third more grievous piece of treachery still. His father-in-law had been Marcus Silanus, a man full of wisdom, and very illustrious by birth. He, after his daughter had died by an early death, still was very attentive and affectionate to Caius, showing all imaginable regard for him, not so much like a father-in-law as like an actual father, and he hoped that he should find that Caius also entertained equal good will towards him, transforming himself according to the principles of equality from a son-in-law into a son ; but he was, without knowing it, cherishing mistaken opinions, and deluding himself, for he was continually uttering affectionate speeches, keeping back nothing which could tend to the amelioration and improvement of Caius's disposition and way of life and mode of government, speaking with all freedom, and looking upon his own surpassing nobility of birth and nearness of connexion by marriage as circumstances which gave him grounds for great familiarity and openness, for his daughter had been dead only a very short time, so that the laws and bonds which bind such kinsmen were scarcely destroyed, and one may almost say were still quivering with life, some relics of the breath of vitality being still left, as it were, and remaining warm in the body. But Caius, looking upon every admonition as an insult, because he fancied that he himself was the wisest and most virtuous of all men, and moreover the most valorous and the most just, hated all who ventured to offer him instruction more than even his avowed enemies.

Therefore, looking on Silanus as a bore, who only wished to check the impetuosity and indulgence of his appetites, and discarding all recollection of and regard for his deceased wife, he treacherously put her father to death, who was also his own father-in-law.

X. And by this time the matter began to be widely talked about in consequence of the continual deaths of so many eminent men, so that now these things began to be spoken of in every mouth as intolerable infamy and wickedness ; not indeed openly, from fear, but gently and under the breath, in whispers ; and then again, by a sudden change (for the multi-

VOL. IV i

tude is very unstable in everything, in intentions, and words, and actions), men, disbelieving that one who but a little while before was merciful and humane could have become altered so entirely, for Caius had been looked upon as affable, and sociable, and friendly, began to seek for excuses for him, and after some search they found such, saying with regard to his cousin and co-heir in the kingdom things such as these : " The unchangeable law of nature has ordained that there 'should be no partnership in sovereign power, and it has ' established by its own unalterable principles what this man must inevitably have suffered at the hands of his more powerful co-heir. The one who was the more powerful has chastised the other. This is not murder. Perhaps, indeed, the putting that youth to death was done providentially for the advantage of the whole human race, since if one portion had been assigned as subjects to the one, and another portion to the other, there would have arisen troubles and confusion, and civil and foreign war. And what is better than peace? and peace is caused by good government on sound principles. And no government can be good but that which is free from all contentions and from all disputes, and then everything else is made right by it."

And in reference to the case of Macro, they said, " The man was puffed up with pride in an immoderate degree ; he had no idea of that great lesson which came from Delphi, ' know thyself. And they say that knowledge is the cause of happiness, and that ignorance is the parent of unhappiness. What could have possessed him to make such an alteration and change in their relative positions as to thrust himself, who was a subject, .into the rank of a governor, and to depress Caius, who was the emperor, into the place of a subject? For it is the part of a ruler to command, and that was what Macro did ; but it is the duty of a subject to obey, and that was what he considered that Caius was to submit to."

For these inconsiderate men, without giving themselves the trouble of inquiring into the truth, called the recommendations of Macro commands, and called him who gave advice a governor, out of ignorance and insensibility, or else out of flattery, suppressing the truth and giving a false colouring to the nature of both names and things.

And in reference to Silanus they said, " Silanus was a most

ON THE VIRTUES AND OFFICE OF AMBASSADORS. 1 1 5

ridiculous person when he took it into his head that a fatherin-law would have as much influence with his son-in-law as a real father has with a son. And yet even real fathers who are in a private station submit to their sons when they are in great offices and in places of high authority, being quite content with the second place ; but this foolish man, even when he was no longer his father-in-law, kept on claiming privileges which did not belong to him, without perceiving that with the death of his daughter the connexion which had originated in the marriage of Caius with her had also died, for intermarriages are the bonds which unite families between which there is no kindred, changing alienation into near connexion ; but when that bond is dissolved, then the union is dissolved likewise, especially when it is dissolved by a circumstance which cannot be altered or remedied, namely, by the death of the woman who was given in marriage into another family."

Such conversations as these were held in every company, the speakers being wholly influenced by their wish that the emperor should not appear to be cruel; for as they had hoped that such humanity and gentleness was seated in the soul of Caius as had not existed in either of the previous emperors, they thought it would be a most strange thing if he now made so great and so sudden a change to an entirely contrary disposition.

XL Having now, then, entirely accomplished the three undertakings above-mentioned, with reference to three most important divisions, two of them belonging to the country, one to the class of counsellors and the other to the knights, and the third affecting his own relations, and considering that now that he had thus put down the mightiest and most powerful of his foes, he must have struck all the rest with the utmost terror, alarming the counsellors by the death of Silanus (for he was inferior to no one in the senate), and the knights by the execution of Macro (for he, like the leader of a chorus, had long been considered the very first man of the knights for reputation and glory), and all his blood relations bjr the slaughter of his cousin and joint inheritor of the kingdom, he no longer chose to remain fettered by the ordinary limits of human nature, but aspired to raise himself above them, and desired to be looked upon as a god.

And at the beginning of this insane desire they say that he

116 FHILO JUDJEUS.

was influenced by such a train of reasoning as the following : for as the curators of the herds of other animals, namely cowherds, and goatherds, and shepherds, are neither oxen nor goats, nor sheep, but men who have received a more excellent portion, and a more admirable formation of mind and body ; so in the same manner, said he, is it fitting that I who am the leader of the most excellent of all herds, namely, the race of mankind, should be considered as a being of a superior nature, and not merely human, but as one who has received a greater and more holy portion. Accordingly, having impressed this idea on his mind, like a vain and foolish man as he was, he bore about in himself a fallacious fable and invention as if it had been a most undeniable truth ; and after he had once carried his boldness and audacity to such a pitch as to compel the multitude to admit of his most impious deification, he attempted to do other things consistent with and conformable to it, and in this way he advanced up to the highest point by slow degrees as if he were ascending up steps.

For he began at first to liken himself to those beings who are called demigods, such as Bacchus, and Hercules, and the twins of Lacedsemon ; turning into utter ridicule Trophonius, and Amphiaraus, and Amphilochus, and others of the same kind, with all their oracles and secret ceremonies, in comparison of his own power. In the next place, like an actor in a theatre, he was continually wearing different dresses at different times, taking at one time a lion's skin and a club, both gilded over ; l>eing then dressed in the character of Hercules ; at another time he would wear a felt hat upon his head, when he was disguised in imitation of the Spartan twins, Castor and Pollux ; sometimes he also adorned himself with ivy, and a thyrsus, and skins of fawns, so as to appear in the guise of Bacchus.

And he looked upon himself as being in this respect superior to all of these beings, because each of them while he had his own peculiar honours had no claim to those which belonged to the others, but he in his envious ambition appropriated all the honours of the whole body of demigods at once, or I should rather say, appropriated the demigods themselves ; transforming himself not into the triple-bodied Geryon, so as to attract all beholders by the multitude of his bodies ; but, what was the most extraordinary thing of all, changing and transforming the essence of one body into every variety of form and

figure, like the Egyptian Proteus, whom Homer has represented as being susceptible of every variety of transformation, into all the elements, and into the animals, and plants, which belong to the different elements.

And yet why, 0 Caius ! did you think yourself in need of spurious honours, such as the temples and statues of the beings above-mentioned are often filled with ? You ought rather to have imitated their virtues. Hercules purified both the earth and the sea, performing labours of the greatest possible importance and of the highest benefit to all mankind, in order to eradicate all that was mischievous and calculated to injure the nature of each of the elements. Bacchus rendered the vine susceptible of cultivation, and extracted a most delicious drink from it, which is at the same time most beneficial to the souls and bodies of men, leading the first to cheerfulness, working in them a forgetfulness of evils and a hope of blessings, and making the latter more healthy, and vigorous, and active, and supple. And individually it renders each man better, and alters populous families and households, leading them from a squalid and laborious life of vexation to a course of relaxation and cheerful happiness, and causing to every city on earth, both Grecian and barbarian, incessant festivity, and mirth, and

The passage in Homer is to be found at Odyssey iv. 363. It is imitated more concisely by Virgil, who makes Cyrene tell Aristseus— Verum ubi correptum manibus vinclisque tenebis Turn varise eludent species atque ora ferarum ; Fiet enim subito sus horridus atraque tigris Squamosusque draco et fulva cervice lesena Aut acrem flamrnse sonitum dabit, atque ita vinclis Excidet, aut in aquas tenues dilapsus abibit. — Georg. iv. 410.

Which is thus translated by Pope —

" Instant he wears, elusive of the rape, The mimic force of every savage shape : Or glides with liquid lapse a murm'riug stream, Or wrapt in flame, he glows at every limb. Yet still retentive, with redoubled might Thro' each vain passive form constrains his flight. But when, his native shape resumed, he stands Patient of conquest, and your ctuse demands ; The cause that urg'd the bold attempt declare, And soothe the vanquish'd with a victor's prayer. The bands relaxed, implore the seer to say What godhead interdicts the wat'ry way."

entertainment, and revelry ; for of all these things is good wine the cause.

Again, it is said that the twin sons of Jupiter, Castor and Pollux, are partakers of immortality. For since the one was mortal and the other immortal, the one who had had the more excellent portion assigned to him did not choose to behave in a selfish manner, but rather to display his good will and affection towards his brother ; for having acquired the idea that eternity was never-ending, and considering that he was to live for ever, and that his brother was to be dead for ever, and that in conjunction with his own immortality he should likewise be enduring an undying sorrow on account of his brother, he conceived and carried out a most marvellous system of counterbalancing, mingling mortality with himself and immortality with his brother, and thus he modified inequality, which is the beginning of all injustice, by equality, which is the fountain of justice.

XII. All these beings, 0 Caius ! were admired on account of the benefits which they had conferred on mankind, and they ai'e admired for them even up to the present time, and they were deservedly thought worthy of veneration and of the very highest honours. But come now, and tell us yourself in what achievement of yours do you pride yourself and boast yourself as being in the least similar to their actions ? Have you imitated the twin sons of Jupiter in their brotherly affection, that I may begin with that point ? Did you not rather, O hardhearted and most pitiless of men ! inhumanly slaughter your brother, the joint inheritor of the kingdom with you, even before he had arrived at the full vigour of manhood, when he was still in early youth. Did you not afterwards banish your sisters, lest they also should cause you any reasonable apprehension of the deprivation and loss of your imperial power ?

Have you imitated Bacchus in any respect? Have you been an inventor of any new blessings to mankind ? Have you filled the whole of the habitable world with joy as he did ? Are all Asia and Europe inadequate to contain the gifts which have been showered upon mankind by you? No doubt you have invented new arts and sciences, like a common pest and murderer of your kind, by which you have changed all pleasant and acceptable things into vexation and sorrow, and have made life miserable and intolerable to all men everywhere, appro-

priatiug to yourself in your intolerable and insatiable greediness all tbe good and beautiful things which belonged to every one else, whether from tbe east or from any other country of the universe, carrying off everything from the south, everything from the north, and in requital giving to and pouring down upon those whom you had plundered every sort of mischievous and injurious things from your own bitter spirit, everything which is ever engendered in cruel, and destructive, and envenomed dispositions ; these are the reasons why you appeared to us as a new Bacchus.

But I suppose you imitated Hercules in your unwearied labours and your incessant displays of valour and virtue ; you, 0 most wretched of men ! having filled every continent and every island with good laws, and principles of justice, and wealth, and comfort, and prosperity, and abundance of other blessings, you, wretched man, full of all cowardice and iniquity, who have emptied every city of all the things which can conduce to stability and prosperity, and have made them full of everything which leads to trouble and confusion, and the most utter misery and desolation.

Tell me then, O Caius ! do you, after having made all these contributions to universal destruction, do you, I say, seek to acquire immortality in order to make the calamities which you have heaped upon mankind, not of brief duration and shortlived, but imperishable and everlasting ? But I think, on the contrary, that even if you had previously appeared to be a god, you would beyond all question have been changed on account of your evil practices into an ordinary nature, resembling that. of common perishable mortals ; for if virtues can make their possessors immortal, then beyond all doubt vices can make them mortal. Do not, therefore, inscribe your name by the side of that of the twin sons of Jupiter, those most affectionate of deities, you who have been the murderer anc],, destruction of your brethren, nor claim a share in the honours of Hercules or Bacchus, who have benefited human life. You have been the undoer and destroyer of those good effects which they produced.

XIII. But the madness and frenzy to which he gave way were so preposterous, and so utterly insane, that he went even beyond the demigods, and mounted up to and invaded the

120 PHILO JUCEUS.

veneration and worship paid to those who are looked upon as greater than they, as the supreme deities of the world, Mercury, and Apollo, and Mars.

And first of all he dressed himself up with the caduceus, and sandals, and mantle of Mercury, exhibiting a regularity in his disorder, a consistency in his confusion, and a ratiocination in his insanity.

Afterwards, when he thought fit to do so, he laid aside these ornaments, and metamorphosed and transformed himself into Apollo, crowning his head with garlands, in the form of rays, and holding a bow and arrows in his left hand, and holding forth graces in his right, as if it became him to proffer blessings to all men from his ready store, and to display the best arrangement possible on his right hand, but to contract the punishments which he had it in his power to inflict, and to allot to them a more confined space on his left. And immediately there were established choruses, who had been carefully trained, singing poeans to him, the same who had, a little while before, called him Bacchus, and Evius, and Lyasus, and sang Bacchic hymns in his honour when he assumed the disguise of Bacchus.

Very often, also, he would clothe himself with a breastplate, and march forth sword in hand, with a helmet on his head and a shield on his left arm, calling himself Mars, and on each side of him there marched with him the attendants of this new and unknown Mars, a troop of murderers and executioners who had already performed him all kinds of wicked services when he was raging and thirsting for human blood ; and then when men saw this they were amazed and terrified at the marvellous sight, and they wondered how a man who did exactly the contrary to what was dene by those beings to whom ; he claimed to be equal in honour, did not choose to imitate their virtues, but assumed the outward character of each with the most abominable conduct. And yet all those ornaments and decorations which belonged to them were attached to his statues and images, which indicated by symbols the benefits which the beings who are thus honoured confer upon the race of mankind. Mercury, for instauce, requires wings attached to his ankles. Why so ? Is it not because it behoves him to be the interpreter and declarer of the will of the gods (from

which employment, in fact, he derives his Greek name of Hermes*), announcing good news to mankind (for not only no god but no sensible man ever will become the messenger of evil), and therefore it is necessary for him to be exceedingly swift-footed, and all but winged, from the unhesitating rapidity with which he requires to proceed. Since it is right that beneficial news should be announced with great promptness, just as bad news ought to be brought slowly, unless indeed any one should prefer saying that such ought to be entirely suppressed in silence.

Again, he takes with him his caduceus or herald's wand, as a token of reconciliation and peace, for wars receive their respites and terminations by means of heralds, who restore peace ; and wars which have no heralds to terminate them cause endless calamities to both parties, both to those who invade their neighbours and to those who are endeavouring to repel the invasion. But for what purpose did Caius assume the winged sandals of Mercury? Was it because he wished to spread with power, and rapidity, and loudness that miserable and ill-omened intelligence ^phich ought rather to be buried in silence altogether, conveying his voice everywhere with unceasing eelerity ?

And yet what need had he of such rapid motion ? for even while standing still he poured forth unspeakable evils upon evils as if from an unceasing fountain, showering them down upon every portion of the habitable world. And of what use was the herald's wand to him, who never either said or did anything bearing upon peace, but who rather filled every house and every city within Greece and in the countries of the barbarians with civil wars? Let him, therefore, impester that he is, lay aside the name of Mercury, since by assuming it he is only profaning an appellation which does not belong to him.

XIV. Again, of all the attributes of Apollo, what is there which in the least degree resembles his characteristics ? He wears a crown emitting rays all around, the artist who made it having given a most admirable representation of the beams of the sun ; but how can the sun, or in fact any light at all, be a welcome object to him, and not rather night, or anything else, if there be such more completely enveloped darkness, or even anything darker than darkness itself, for the performance of * i.e. from (Qfirjvivw, "to interpret."

his lawless actions? Since good actions do require the brilliancy of noonday for their proper display, but shameful actions, as they say, are suited to the extreme depths of Tartarus, into which they ought to be thrust in order to be concealed from sight, as is becoming. Let him also transpose the things which he bears in each of his hands, and not pollute the proper arrangement, for let him bear his arrows and his bow in his right hand, for he knows how with good aim to shoot at and to pierce men and women, and whole families, and populous cities, to their complete destruction. And let him either at once throw away his graces altogether, or else let him keep them in the shade in his left hand, for he has defaced their beauty, directing all his «eyes and exciting all his desires against vast properties, so as to plunder them in an iniquitous manner, in consequence of which their owners were murdered, finding themselves unfortunate through their good fortune.

But no doubt he with great felicity gave a new representation of the medical skill of Apollo, for this god was the inventor of healing medicines,* so as to cause health to men, thinking fit himself to heal the diseases which we#e inflicted by others, by reason of the excessive mildness and gentleness of his own nature and habits, but this man, on the contrary, loads those who are in good health with disease, and inflicts mutilations on those who are sound, and in short visits the living with most cruel death, caused by the hand of man before the time .of their natural death, preparing every imaginable engine of • destruction in abundant plenteousness, by means of which, if he had not himself been previously put to death in accordance

This is one of the attributes of Apollo of which he boasts to Daphne.

Inventum medicina meum est, opiferque per orbein

Dicor et herbarum subjecta potentia nobis :

Hie mihi quod nullis amor est medicabilis herbis

Nee prosunt domino quae prosunt omnibus artes. — Met. 1.461. Or as it is translated by Dry den—

" Medicine is mine ; wbat herbs and simples grow

In fields and forests, all their powers I know,

And am the great physician called below.

Alas, that fields and forests can afford

No remedies to heal their love -sick lord.

To cure the pains of love no plant avails,

And his own physic the physician fails."

with justice, everything glorious or respectable iu every city would long ago have been destroyed.

For his designs were prepared against all those in authority and all those possessed of riches, and especially against those in Rome and those in the rest of Italy, by whom such quantities of gold and silver had been treasured up that even if all the riches of all the rest of the habitable world had heen collected together from its most distant borders, it would have beeu found to be very inferior in amount.

On this account he hegan, he, this hater of the citizens, this devourer of the people, this pestilence, this destructive evil, hegan to banish all the seeds of peace from his country, as if he were expelling evil from holy ground ; for Apollo is said to have been not only a physician but also an excellent prophet, by his oracular predictions announcing what was likely to conduce to the advantage of mankind, in order that no one, being overshadowed by uncertainty, going on without seeing his way before him like a blind man, might hastily fall into unexpected evils as if they were the greatest benefits ; but that men having previously acquired a knowledge of the future as if it were really present, and looking at it with the eye of their mind, might guard against future evils just as they can see evils actually before them with the bodily eye, and in this way secure themselves against any irremediable disaster.

Is it fitting now to compare with these oracles of Apollo the ill-omened warnings of Caius, by means of which poverty, and dishonour, and banishment, and death were given premature notice of to all those who were in power and authority in any part of the world ? What connexion or resemblance was there between him and Apollo, when he never paid any attention to any ties of kindred or friendship ? Let him cease, then, this pretended Apollo, from imitating that real healer of mankind, for the form of God is not a thing which is capable of being imitated by an inferior one, as good money is imitated by bad.

XV. A man, indeed, may expect anything rather than that a man endowed with such a body and such a soul, when botli of them are effeminate and broken down, could ever possibly be made like to the vigour of Mars in either particular; but this man, like a mummer transforming himself on the stage, putting on all sorts of masks one after another, sought to deceive the spectators by a series of fictitious appearances.

Come, then, let him be subjected to an examination in respect of all the particulars of his soul and body, by. reason of his utter unlikeness to the aforesaid deity in every position and in every motion. Was he not utterly unlike Mars, not in respect only of his appearance as celebrated in fable, but as to his natural qualities? Mars, who is endued with pre-eminent valour, which we know to be a power calculated to avert evil, to be the assistant and ally of all who are unjustly oppressed, as indeed his very name shows, for he appears to me to be called Mars from his helping,* which is the same as assisting, being as such the god who is able to put down wars and to cause peace, of which this representation of his was the enemy, being the comrade of wars, and the man who changed peace and stability into disorder and confusion.

XVI. Have we not, then, learned from all these instances, that Caius ought not to be likened to any god, and not even to any demi-god, inasmuch as he has neither the same nature, nor the same essence, nor even the same wishes and intentions as any one of them ; but appetite as it seems is a blind thing, and & especially so when it takes to itself vain-gloriousness and amt bition in conjunction with the greatest power, by which we ' who were previously unfortunate are utterly destroyed, for he regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his, and who had been taught in a manner from their very swaddling-clothes by their parents, and teachers, and instructors, and even before that by their holy laws, and also by their unwritten maxims and customs, to believe that there was but one God, their Father and the Creator of the world ; for all others, all men, all women, all cities, all nations, every country and region of the earth, I had almost said the whole of the inhabited world, although groaning over what was taking place, did nevertheless flatter him, dignifying him above measure, and helping to increase his pride and arrogance ; and some of them even introduced the barbaric custom into Italy of falling down in adoration before him, adulterating their native feelings of Roman liberty.

(But the single nation of the Jews, being excepted from these actions, was suspected by him of wishing to counteract his * The Greek word is api/yiiv, from which Philo supposes "Apqc, the Greek name of Mars, to be derived.

desires, since it was accustomed to embrace voluntary death as an entrance to immortality, for the sake of not permitting any of their national or hereditary customs to be destroyed, even if it were of the most trivial character, because, as is the case in a house, it often happens that by the removal of one small part, even those parts which appeared to be solidly established fall down, being relaxed and brought to decay by the removal of that one thing, but in this case what was put in motion was not a trifle, but a thing of the very greatest importance, namely, the erecting the created and perishable nature of a man, as far at least as appearance went, into the uncreated and imperishable nature of God, which the nation correctly judged to be the most terrible of all impieties (for it would have been easier to change a god into man, than a man into God), besides the fact of such an action letting in other most enormous wickedness, infidelity and ingratitude towards the Benefactor of the whole world, who by his own power gives abundant supplies of all kinds of blessings to every part of the universe.

XVII. Therefore a most terrible and irreconcileable war was prepared against our nation, for what could be a more terrible evil to a slave than a master who was an enemy ? And his subjects are the slaves of the emperor, even if they were not so to any one of the former emperors, because they governed with gentleness and in accordance with the laws, but now that Caius had eradicated all feelings of humanity from his soul, and had admired lawlessness (for looking upon himself as the law, he abrogated all the enactments of other lawgivers in every state and country as so many vain sentences), we were properly to be looked upon not only as slaves, but as the very lowest and mose dishonoured of slaves, now that our ruler was changed into our master.

XVIII. And the mixed and promiscuous multitude of the ! Alexandrians perceiving this, attacked us, looking upon it as

a most favourable opportunity for doing so, and displayed all the arrogance which had been smouldering for a long period, disturbing everything, and causing universal confusion, for they began to crush our people as if they had beeu surrendered by the emperor for the most extreme and undeniable miseries, or as if they had been subdued in war, with their frantic and most brutal passion, forcing their way into their houses, and driving out the owners, with their wives and children, which

they rendered desolate and void of inhabitants. And no longer watching for night and darkness, like ordinary robbers out of fear of being detected, they openly plundered them of all their furniture and treasures, carrying them off in broad daylight, and displaying their booty to every one whom they met, as if they had inherited it or fairly purchased it from the owners.

And if a multitude joined together to share any particular piece of plunder, they divided it in the middle of the marketplace, reviling it and turning it all into ridicule before the eyes of its real owners. These things were of themselves terrible and grievous ; how could they be otherwise ? Surely it was most miserable for men to become beggars from having been wealthy, and to be reduced on a sudden from a state of abundance to one of utter indigence, without having done any wrong, and to be rendered houseless and homeless, being driven out and expelled from their own houses, that thus, being compelled to dwell in the open air day and night, they might be destroyed by the burning heat of the sun or by the cold of the night.

Tet even these evils were lighter than those which I am about to mention ; for when the populace had driven together these countless myriads of men, and women, and children, like so many herds of sheep and oxen, from every quarter of the city, into a very narrow space as if into a pen, they expected that in a few days they should find a heap of corpses all huddled together, as they would either have perished by hunger through the want of necessary food, as they had not prepared themselves with any thing requisite, through a foreknowledge of the evils which thus suddenly came upon them ; or else through being crushed and suffocated from want of any adequate space to breathe in, all the air around them becoming tainted, and all that there was of vivifying power in their respiration being cut off, or, if one is to say the truth, utterly expelled, by the breath of those who were expiring among them. By which, each individual being inflamed, and in a manner oppressed by a descent of fever upon him, inhaled a hot and unwholesome breath through his nostrils and mouth, heaping, as the proverb has it, fire on fire ; for the power which resides in the inmost parts changed its nature, and became

most excessively fiery; upon which, when the external breezes, being moderately cool, blow, all the organs of the respiratory powers flourish, and are in a good and healthy condition ; but when these breezes change and become hot, then those organs must of necessity be in a bad state, fire being added to fire.

XIX. As they then were no longer able to endure the misery of the place within which they were enclosed, they poured forth into desolate parts of the wilderness, and to the shore, and among the tombs, in their eagerness to find any pure and untainted air. And if any of them had previously been left in the other parts of the city, or if any had come in thither from the fields out of ignorance of the evils which had visited their companions, they fell into every variety of misfortune, being stoned, or else wounded with sharp tiles, or beaten on the most mortal parts of the body, and especially on the head, with branches of maple and of oak, in such a way as to cause death.

And some of those persons who are accustomed to pass their time in idleness and inaction, sitting around, occupied themselves in watching those who, as I have said before, were thus driven together and crammed into a very small space, as if they were a force which they were blockading ; lest any one should secretly escape without their perceiving it. And a great many were designing to effect their escape from want of necessaries, disregarding their own safety from a fear that, if they remained, the whole body might perish with famine. So those men, expecting that they would endeavour to escape, kept a continual watch, and the moment that they caught any one, they immediately put him to death with every circumstance of insult and cruelty.

And there was another company lying in wait for them on the quays of the river, to catch any Jews who arrived at those spots, and to plunder them of every thing which they brought for the purposes of traffic ; for, forcing their way into their ships they took out the cargo before the eyes of its lawful owners, and then, binding the hands of the merchants behind them, they burnt them alive, taking the rudders, and helms, and punt-poles, and the benches for the rowers to sit upon, for fuel. And thus these men perished by a most miserable death being burnt alive in the middle

of the city ; for sometimes, for want of other timber they brought piles of faggots together, and tying them up, they threw them on the miserable victims ; and they, being already half burnt, were killed, more by the smoke of the green wood than by the flames, as the new faggots gave forth only an unsubstantial and smoky sort of flame, and were soon extinguished, not being able to be reduced to ashes by reason of their lightness.

And many who were still alive they took and bound, and fastened their ankles together with thongs and ropes, and then dragged them through the middle of the market-place, leaping on them, and not sparing their corpses even after they were dead ; for, tearing them to pieces limb from limb, and trampling on them, behaving with greater brutality and ferocity than even the most savage beasts, they destroyed every semblance of humanity about them, so that not even a fragment of them was left to which the rites of burial could be afforded.

XX. But as the governor of the country, who by himself could, if he had chosen to do so, have put down the violence of the multitude in a single hour, pretended not to see what he did see, and not to hear what he did hear, but allowed the mob to carry on the war against our people without any restraint, and threw our former state of tranquillity into confusion, the populace being excited still more, proceeded onwards to stiU more shameless and more audacious designs and treachery, and, arraying very numerous companies, cut down some of the synagogues (and there are a great many in every section of the city), and some they razed to the very foundations, and into some they threw fire and burnt them, in their insane madness and frenzy, without caring for the neighbouring houses ; for there is nothing more rapid than fire, when it lays hold of fuel.

I omit to mention the ornaments in honour of the emperor, which were destroyed and burnt with these synagogues, such as gilded shields, and gilded crowns, and pillars, and inscriptions, for the sake of which they ought even to have abstained from and spared the other things ; but they were full of confidence, inasmuch as they did not fear any chastisement at the hand of Caius, as they well . knew that he cherished an indescribable hatred against the 1

Jews, so that their opinion was that no one could do him a

more acceptable service than by inflicting every description

of injury on the nation which he hated ; and, as they wished

to curry favour with him by a novel kind of flattery, so as to

allow, and for the future to give the rein to, every sort of ill

treatment of us without ever being called to account, what

did they proceed to do ? All the synagogues that they

were unable to destroy by burning and razing them to the

ground, because a great number of Jews lived in a dense

mass in the neighbourhood, they injured and defaced in

another manner, simultaneously with a total overthrow of

their laws and customs; for they set up in every one of V\

them images of Caius, and in the greatest, and most

conspicuous, and most celebrated of them they erected a

brazen statue of him borne on a four-horse chariot. And so

excessive and impetuous was the rapidity of their zeal, that,

as they had not a new chariot for four horses ready, they

got a very old one out of the gymnasium, full of poison,

mutilated in its ears, and in the hinder part, and in its

pedestal, and in many other points, and as some say, one

which had already been dedicated in honour of a woman, the

eminent Cleopatra, who was the great grandmother of the

last.

Now what amount of accusation he brought against those who had dedicated this chariot on this very account is notorious to every one ; for what did it signify if it was a new one and belonging to a woman ? Or what if it was an old one and belonging to a man ? And what, in short, if it was wholly dedicated to the name of some one else ? Was it not natural that those who were offering up a chariot of this sort on behalf of the emperor should be full of cautious fear, lest some one might lay an information against them before our emperor, who took such especial care that every thing | [ which at all affected or related to himself should be done in I the most dignified manner possible ?

But these men expected to be most extravagantly praised, and to receive greater and more conspicuous advantages as rewards for their conduct, in thus dedicating the synagogues to Caius as new pieces of consecrated ground, not because of the honour which was done to him by this proceeding, but because in this way they exhausted every possible means

TOL. IV. K

of insulting and injuring our nation. And one may find undeniable and notorious proofs of this having been the case.

For, in the first place, one may derive them from about ten kings or more who reigned in order, one after another, for three hundred years, and who never once had any images or statues of themselves erected in our synagogues, though there were many of their relations and kinsmen whom they considered, and registered as, and spoke of as gods. And what would they not have done in the case of those whom they looked upon as men ? a people who look upon dogs, and wolves, and lions, and crocodiles, and numerous other beasts, both terrestrial and aquatic, and numerous birds, as gods, and erect in their honour altars, and temples, and shrines, and consecrated precincts, throughout the whole of Egypt ?

XXI. Perhaps some people who would not have opened their mouths then will say now : " They were accustomed to pay respect to the good deeds done by their governors rather than to their governors themselves, because the emperors are greater than the Ptolemies, both in their dignities and in their fortunes, and are justly entitled to receive higher honours. Then, 0 ye most foolish of all mankind ! that I may not be compelled to utter any thing disrespectful or blasphemous, why did you never think Tiberius, who was emperor before Caius, who indeed was the cause that Caius ever became emperor, who himself enjoyed the supreme power by land and sea for three and twenty years, and who never allowed any seed of war to smoulder or to raise its head, either in Greece or in the territory of the barbarians, and who bestowed peace and the blessings of peace up to the end of his life with a rich and most bounteous hand and mind upon the whole empire and the whole world ; why, I say, did you not consider hhia worthy of similar honour ? Was he inferior in birth ? No ; he was of the most noble blood by both parents. Was he inferior in his education ? Who, of all the men who flourished in his time, was either more prudent or more eloquent P Or in his age ? What king or emperor ever lived to more prosperous old age than he ? Moreover, he, even while he was still a young man, was called the old man as a mark of

respect because of his exceeding wisdom. This man, though he was so wise, and so good, and so great, was passed over and disregarded by you.

Again, why did you not pay similar honour to him who exceeded the common race of human nature in every virtue, who, by reason of the greatness of his absolute power and his own excellence, was the first man to be called Augustus, not receiving the title after another by a succession of blood as a part of his inheritance, but who was himself the origin of his successors, having that title and honour ? He who first became emperor, when all the affairs of the state were in disorder and confusion ; for the islands were in a state of war against the continents, and the continents were contending with the islands for the pre-eminence in honour, each having for their leaders and champions the most powerful and eminent of the Romans who were in office. And then again, great sections of Asia were contending against Europe, and Europe against Asia, for the chief power and dominion ;* the European and Asiatic nations rising up from the extremities of the earth, and waging terrible wars against one another over all the earth, and over every sea, with enormous armaments, so that very nearly the whole race of mankind would have been destroyed by mutual slaughter and made utterly to disappear, if it had not been

He alludes here to the war between Caesar and Pompey. Pompey had been governor of Syria, and Virgil speaks of him as relying on his eastern forces.

Illae autem, paribus quas fulgere cernis in armis, Concoi-des animse nunc, et dum nocte premuntur Heu ! quantum inter se bellum, si lumina vitse Attigerint, quantas acies stragemque ciebunt ! Aggeribus socer Alpinis atque arce Monoeci Descendens ; gener adversis instructus Eo'is. — iEn. vi. 832. Or as it is translated by Dryden —

" The pair you see in equal armour shine, Now, friends below, in close embraces join ; But when they leave the shady realms of night, And clothed in bodies breathe your upper light, With mortal hate each other shall pursue, What wars, what wounds, what slaughter shall ensue. From Alpine heights the father first descends, His daughter's husband in the plain attends, His daughter's husband arms his eastern friends."

for one man and leader, Augustus, by whose means they were brought to a better stnte,"'a~rid therefore we may justly call him the averter of evil.

This is Caesar, who calmed the storms which were raging in every direction, who healed the common diseases which were afflicting both Greeks and barbarians, who descended from the south and from the east, and ran on and penetrated as far as the north and the west, in such a way as to fill all the neighbouring districts and waters with unexpected miseries. This is he who did not only loosen but utterly abolish the bonds in which the whole of the habitable world was previously bound and weighed down. This is he who destroyed both the evident and the unseen wars which arose from the attacks of robbers. This is he who rendered the sea free from the vessels of pirates, and filled it with merchantmen.* This is he who gave freedom to every city, who brought disorder into order, who civilized and made obedient and harmonious, nations which before his time were unsociable, hostile, and brutal. This is he who increased Greece by many Greeces, and who Greecised the regions of the barbarians in their most important divisions : the guardian of peace, the distributor to every man of what was suited to him, the man who proffered to all the citizens favours with the most ungrudging liberality, who never once in his whole life concealed or reserved for himself any thing that was good or excellent.

XXII. Now this man who was so great a benefactor to them for the space of three and forty years, during which he reigned over Egypt, they passed over in silence and neglect, never erecting any thing in their synagogues to do him honour ; no image, no statue, no inscription.

And yet if ever there was a man to whom it was proper that new and unprecedented honours should be voted, it was certainly fitting that such should be decreed to him, not only because he was as it were the origin and fountain of the family of Augustus, not because he was the first, and greatest, and universal benefactor, having, instead of the multitude of governors who existed before, entrusted the common vessel of the state to himself as one pilot of

He is attributing an honour to Augustus which does not belong to him. It was Poinpey who cleared the sea of pirates.

admirable skill in the science of governments to steer and govern ; for the verse,

" The government of many is not good,"

is very properly expressed, since a multitude of votes is the cause of every variety of evil ; but also because the whole of the rest of the habitable world had. decreed him honours equal to those of the Olympian gods. And we have evidence of this in the temples, and porticoes, and sacred precincts, and groves, and colonnades which have been erected, so that all the cities put together, ancient and modern, which exhibit magnificent works, are surpassed, by the beauty and magnitude of the buildings erected in honour of Ca3sar, and especially by those raised in our city of Alexandria.

For there is no sacred precinct of such magnitude as that which is called the Grove of Augustus, and the temple erected in honour of the disembarkation of Caesar, which is raised to a great height, of great size, and of the most conspicuous beauty, opposite the best harbour ; being such an one as is not to be seen in any other city, and full of offerings, in pictures, and statues ; find decorated all around Avitli silver and gold ; being a very extensive space, ornamented in the most magnificent and sumptuous manner with porticoes, and libraries, and men's chambers, and groves, and propylaea, and wide, open terraces, and court-yards in the open air, and with everything that could contribute to use or beauty ; being a hope and beacon of safety to all who set sail, or who came into harbour.

XXIII. Therefore, though they had such admirable pretexts for such conduct, and all the nations in every part of the world inclined to agree with them, they nevertheless neither made any innovations in their synagogues, but kept the law in every particular; and refused any marks of respect and veneration which might have been looked upon as due to Caesar. Perhaps some cautious and sensible person may ask : " Why were all these honours denied to him?" I will tell the reason, without suppressing any thing.

They were aware of the attention which he paid to every thing, and of the very exceeding care which he took that the

national laws and customs prevailing in each nation should be confirmed and preserved, being equally anxious for the preservation of the rights of foreign nations in this respect, as for those of the Romans ; and that he received his honours, not for the destruction of the laws existing in any people, filling himself with pride and arrogance, but in a spirit of proper conformity with the magnitude of so vast an empire, which is dignified and honoured by such marks of respect being paid to the emperor.

And there is most undeniable proof that he was never influenced or puffed up by the excessive honours paid to him, in the fact that he did not approve of any one's addressing him as master or god, but if any one used such expressions he was angry ; and we may see it too in his approbation of the Jews, who he well knew most religiously avoided all such language.

How then did he look upon the great division of Rome which is on the other side of the river Tiber, which he was well aware was occupied and inhabited by the Jews ? And they were mostly Roman citizens, having been emancipated ; for, having been brought as captives into Italy, they were manumitted by those who had bought them for slaves, without ever having been compelled to alter any of their hereditary or national observances. Therefore, he knew that they had synagogues, and that they were in the habit of visiting them, and most especially on the sacred sabbath days, when they publicly cultivate their national philosophy. He knew also that they were in the habit of contributing sacred sums of money from their first fruits and sending them to Jerusalem by the hands of those who were to conduct the sacrifices. But he never removed them from Rome, uor did he ever deprive them of their rights as Roman citizens, because he had a regard for Judaea, nor did he ever meditate any new steps of innovation or rigour with respect to their synagogues, nor did he forbid their assembling for the interpretation of the law, nor did he make any opposition to their offerings of first fruits ; but he behaved with such piety towards our countrymen, and with respect to all our customs, that he, I may almost say, with all his house, adorned our temple with many costly and magnificent offerings, commanding that continued sacrifices

of whole burnt offerings should be offered up for ever and ever every day from his own revenues, as a first fruit of his own to the most high God, which sacrifices are performed to this very day, and will be performed for ever, as a proof and specimen of a truly imperial disposition.

Moreover, in the monthly divisions of the country, when the whole people receives money or corn in turn, he never allowed the Jews to fall short in their reception of this favour, but even if it happened that this distribution fell on the day of their sacred sabbath, on which day it is not lawful for them to receive any thing, or to give any thing, or in short to perform any of the ordinary duties of life, he charged the dispenser of these gifts, and gave him the most careful and special injunctions to make the distribution to the Jews on the day following, that they might not lose the effects of his common kindness.

XXIV. Therefore, all people in every country, even if they were not naturally well inclined towards the Jewish nation, took great care not to violate or attack any of the Jewish customs or laws. And in the reign of Tiberius things went on in the same manner, although at that time things in Italy were thrown into a great deal of confusion when Sejanus was preparing to make his attempt against our nation ; for he knew immediately after his death that the accusations which had been brought against the Jews who were dwelling in Kome were false calumnies, inventions of Sejanus, who was desirous to destroy our nation, which he knew alone, or above all others, was likely to oppose his unholy counsels and actions in defence of the emperor, who was in great danger of being attacked, in violation of all treaties and of all honesty.

And he sent commands to all the governors of provinces in every country to comfort those of our nation in their respective cities, as the punishment intended to be inflicted was not meant to be inflicted upon all, but only on the guilty ; and they were but few. And he ordered them to change none of the existing customs, but to look upon them as pledges, since the men were peaceful in their dispositions and natural characters, and their laws trained them and disposed them to quiet and stability.

XXV. But Caius puffed himself up with pride, not only ,

saying, but actually thinking that he was a god. And then he found no people, whether among the Greeks or among the barbarians, more suitable than the Alexandrians to confirm him in his immoderate and unnatural ambition ; for they are in an extraordinary degree inclined to flattery, and trick, and hypocrisy, being thoroughly furnished with all kinds of cajoling words, and prone to confuse every thing with their unbridled and licentious talk. And the name of God is held in so little veneration among them, that they have given it to ibises, and to the poisonous asps which are found in their country, and to many other savage beasts which exist in it. So that they, very naturally, giving in to all kinds of addresses and invocations to him, addressed him as God, deceiving men of shallow comprehension, who were wholly inexperienced iu the impiety prevailing in Egypt, though they are detected by those who are acquainted with their excessive folly, or, I should rather say, with their preposterous impiety.

Of which, Cains, having no experience, imagined that he was really believed by the Alexandrians to be God, since they, without any disguise, openly and plainly used all the appellations without any limitation, with which they were accustomed to invoke the other gods. In the next place, he believed that the innovations which they made with respect to their synagogues, were all made with a pure conscience, and from a sincere honour and respect for him, partly being influenced by the ephemerides in the way of memorial, which some persons sent him from Alexandria ; for these things were what he very much delighted to read, to such a degree that the writings of all other authors, whether in pi'ose or in poetry, were looked upon by him as absolutely odious in comparison with the delight which these documents afforded him, and partly by the language of some of his domestics, who were continually jesting with him and ridiculing all serious things.

XXVI. The greater portion of these men were Egyptians, wicked, worthless men, who had imprinted the venom and evil disposition of their native asps and crocodiles on their own souls, and gave a faithful representation of them there. And the leader of the whole Egyptian troops, like the coryphaeus of a chorus, was a man of the name of Helicon, au

accursed and infamous slave, who had been introduced into the imperial household to its ruin ; for he had acquired a slight smattering of the encyclical sciences, by imitation of and rivalry with his former master, who gave him to Tiberius Caesar. And at that time he had no especial privilege, since Tiberius had a perfect hatred of all youthful sallies of wit for the mere purposes of amusement, as he, from almost his earliest youth, was of a solemn and austere disposition.

But when Tiberius was dead, and Caius succeeded to the empire, he then, following a new master, who invited him to every description of relaxation and luxury, such as could delight every one of his outward senses, said to himself: " Eise up, 0 Helicon ! now is your opportunity. Tou have now an auditor, and a spectator, who is of all men in the world the best calculated to receive the exhibition of your talents favourably. You are a man of very attractive natural talents. Tou are able to joke graceful, and to say witty, things beyond any one else. Tou are skilful in all kinds of amusements, and trifling, and fashionable sports. And you are equally accomplished in those branches of encyclical education which are not so ordinarily met with. Moreover, you have a readiness of speech and repartee which is far from unpleasing. If therefore you mingle with your jestings any little stimulus wrhich is in the least unwelcome or painful, so as to excite not only laughter but any feelings of bitterness, on the part of one who is always ready to suspect evil, you will "be deliberately alienating from yourself a master who is very well inclined by nature to listen to any accusations which are brought before him in a joking manner ; for his ears, as you well know^, are always open, and are constantly on the watch to listen to all those who are in the habit of interweaving accusations of others with their sycophancy, And do not seek for any more abundant causes ; for you have a sufficient foundation with respect to the customs of the Jews and the national laws of that people, in which you yourself were bred up, and in which you have been instructed from your very earliest childhood, not by one man only, but by that most chattering and vexatious portion of the city of Alexandria. So now, make an exhibition of your learning."

XXVII. By these preposterous and accursed arguments

1C8 PHILO JUD^EUS.

he excited his own expectations, and trained himself, and inflamed his own wishes ; and then he attended upon and courted Caius, day and night, never leaving him for a moment, but being with him at all times and on all occasions, and employing every moment when he was by himself, or when he was resting, to pour fortli accusations against our nation, like a most infamous man as he was, exciting pleasure in the mind of the emperor by ridiculing the Jews and their laws and customs, that thus his calumnies might wound us the more effectually ; for he never openly confessed himself to be our accuser, nor could he in fact make such a confession ; but he went by all kinds of crooked paths, and practised every sort of manoeuvre, and thus was a more dangerous and formidable enemy than even those men who openly recorded their hatred of and hostdity towards

They say also that some of the ambassadors of the Alexandrians, being completely aware of this, had secretly hired him by considerable bribes, and not only by money but by hopes of future honours, which they led him to expect he might attain to at no distant period, when Caius should come to Alexandria. And he, being continually declaiming of that time in which, while his master was present, and in conjunction with him, he should be almost supreme in his power over a large portion of the world (for it was notorious enough that by his assiduous courting of Caius, he would be able to acquire power over the most illustrious portion of the citizens, and over all those who are held in especial honour by the most magnificent and glorious city,* promised every thing).

"We, therefore, being for a long time unsuspicious of this natural enemy, who was plotting against us from his concealment, took precautions only against our external foes ; but when we perceived that he too was to be guarded against, we searched into the matter carefully, considering every expedient to see if we could, by any means, propitiate and conciliate the man who was thus aiming and shooting at us, by every means and from every place, with great accuracy of aim and power of injuring us; for he was in the habit of playing at ball with him, and of exercising himself * There seems some corruption in the text here.

in gymnastic sports with him, and of bathing with him, and breakfasting with him, and he was with Caius when he was wont to go to rest, filling the part of chamberlain and chief body-guard to him, an office which was not entrusted to any one else, so that he alone had all kinds of favourable opportunities for being listened to at leisure by the emperor, when he was removed from any external tumults and distractions, and able quietly to hear what he principally desired.

And he mingled numbers of satirical and quizzing observations with his more formal and serious accusations, in order to excite pleasure in his hearers by that means, and to do us the greatest possible amount of injury; for the quizzing and ridiculing appeared, as he used it, to be the principal object at which he aimed, though it was in reality only his indirect one ; and the accusations which he launched against us appeared to be mere casual observations, dropped accidentally, though in reality they were his primary and sole object, while he was trying every expedient possible, and so, like sailors who have a fair wind blowing on their stern, he was borne onwards with a full sail before a favourable gale, heaping upon us and stringing together one accusation after another, while the mind of his hearer was fashioned in a more solid and retentive mould, so that the recollection ot ' the accusations was not easily eradicated.

XXVIII. Accordingly, we being in a great strait and in most difficult circumstances, we, though we had availed ourselves of every expedient which we could possibly think of in order to propitiate and conciliate Helicon, could find no means of doing so and no access to him, since no one dared either to accost or to approach him, by reason of his exceeding insolence and cruelty with which he behaved to every one ; and also because we were not aware, whether there was any especial reason for his alienation from the Jewish nation ; since he was also exciting and exasperating his master against our people, and, accordingly, we left oft labouring at this point, and turned our attention to what was of greater importance'.

For it appeared good to present to Caius a memorial, containing a summary of what we had suffered, and of the way in which we considered that we deserved to be treated ; and

HO PHILO JUD^US.

this memorial was nearly an abridgment of a longer petition which we had sent to him a short time before, by the hand of king Agrippa ; for be, by chance, was staying for a short time in the city, while on his way into Syria to take possession of the kingdom which had been given to him ; but we, without being aware of it, were deceiving ourselves, for before also we had done the same, when we originally began to set sail, thinking that as we were going before a judge we should meet with justice ; but he was in reality an irreconcilable enemy to us, attracting us, as far as appearance went, with favourable looks and cheerful address ; for, receiving us favourably at first, in the plains on the banks of the Tiber (for he happened to be walking about in his mother's garden), he conversed with us formally, and waved his right hand to us in a protecting manner, giving us significant tokens of his good will, and having sent to us the secretary, whose duty it was to attend to the embassies that arrived, Obulus by name, he said, " I myself will listen to what you have to say at the first favourable opportunity."

So that all those who stood around congratulated us as if we had already carried our point, and so did all those of our own people, who are influenced by superficial appearances. But I myself, who was accounted to be possessed of superior prudence, both on account of my age and my education, and general information, was less sanguine in respect of the matters at which the others were so greatly delighted. " For why," said I, after pondering the matter deeply in my own heart, " why, when there have been such numbers of ambassadors, who have come, one may almost say, from every corner of the globe, did he say on that occasion that he would hear what we had to say, and no one eise ? What could have been his meaning ? for he was not ignorant that we were Jews, who would have been quite content at not being treated worse than the others ; but to expect to be looked upon as worthy to receive especial privileges and precedence, by a master who was of a different nation and [a young man and an absolute monarch, would have seemed [like insanity. But it would seem that he was showing [civility to the whole district of the Alexandrians, to which fhe was thus giving a privilege, when promising to give his decision speedily ; unless, indeed, disregarding the character

of a fair; and impartial hearer, he was intending to be a fellow suitor with our adversaries and an enemy of ours, instead of behaving like a judge."

XXIX. Having these ideas in my mind, I resisted the sanguine hopes of the others, and had no rest in my mind day or night. But while I was thus giving way to despondency and lamenting over my ignorance of the future (for it was not safe to postpone matters), on a sudden another most grievous and unexpected calamity fell upon us, bringing danger not on one section of the Jews only, but on all the nation together. For we had come from Rome to Dicsearchia attending upon Caius ; and he had gone down to the sea-side and was remaining near the gulf, having left for a while his own palaces, which were numerous and superbly furnished. And while we were anxiously considering his intentions, for we were continually expecting to be summoned, a man arrived, with blood-shot eyes, and looking very much troubled, out of breath and palpitating, and leading us away to a little distance from the rest (for there were several persons near), he said, " Have you heard the news?" And then when he was about to tell us what it was he stopped, because of the abundance of tears that rose up to choke his utterance. And beginning again, he was a second and a third time stopped in the same manner. And we, seeing this, were much alarmed and agitated by suspense, and entreated him to tell us what the circumstance was on account of which he said that he had come ; for he could not have come merely to weep before so many witnesses. " If, then," said we, "you have any real cause for tears, do not keep your grief to yourself; we have been long ago well accustomed to misfortune."

And he with difficulty, sobbing aloud, and in a broken voice, spoke as follows : " Our temple is destroyed ! Caius has ordered a colossal statue of himself to be erected in the holy of holies, having his own name inscribed upon it with the title of Jupiter !" And while we were all struck dumb with astonishment and terror at what he had told us, and stood still deprived of all motion (for we stood there mute and in despair, ready to fall to the groud with fear and sorrow, the very muscles of our bodies being deprived of all ' strength by the news which we had heard) ; others arrived

142 PHILO JUDJEDS.

bearing the same sad tale. And then we all retired and shut ourselves up together and bewailed our individual and common miseries, and went through every circumstance that our minds could conceive, for a man in misfortune is a most loquacious animal, wrestling as we might with our misery. And we said to one another, " "We have sailed hither in the middle of winter, in order that we might not be all involved in violation of the law and in misfortunes proceeding from it, without being aware what a winter of misery was awaiting us on shore, far more grievous than any storm at sea. For of the one nature is the cause, which has divided the seasons of the year and arranged them in due order, but nature is a thing which exerts a saving power ; but the other storm is caused by a man who cherishes no ideas such as become a man, but is a young man, and a promoter of all kinds of innovation, being invested with irresponsible power

( over all the world.

/ " And youth, when combined with absolute power and yielding to irresistible and unrestrained passion, is an invincible evil. And will it be allowed to us to approach

him or to open our mouth on the subject of the synagogues before this in suiter of our holy and glorious temple ? For it is quite evident that he will pay no regard whatever to things of less importance and which are held in inferior estimation, when he behaves with insolence and contempt towards our most beautiful and renowned temple, which is respected by all the east and by all the west, and regarded like the sun which shines everywhere. And even if we wrere allowed free access to him, what else could we expect but an inexorable sentence of death ? But be it so ; we will perish, For, indeed, a glorious death in defence of and for the sake of the preservation of our laws, is a kind of life.

" But, indeed, if no advantage is derived from our death, would it not be insanity to perish in addition to what we now have to endure, and this too, while we appear to be ambassadors, so that the calamity appears rather to affect those who have sent us than those who remain ? Not but what those of our fellow countrymen who are by nature most inclined to detest all wickedness, will accuse us of impiety, as if we, in the extremity of dangers, when our whole country was tossed about and threatened, were remembering

ON THE VIRTUES AND OFFICE OF AMBASSADORS. U3

some private interests of otur own out of selfishness. For it is necessary that small things must yield to great ones, and that private objects must yield to the general interests ; since, when they are destroyed, there is an end of the constitution and of the nation. For how can it be holy or lawful for us to struggle in any other manner, pointing out that we are citizens of Alexandria, over whom a danger is now impending, that namely, of the utter destruction of the general constitution of the Jewish nation ; for in the destruction of the temple there is reason to fear that this man, so fond of innovation and willing to dare the most audacious actions, wdl also order the general name of our whole nation to be abolished.

" If, therefore, both the objects on account of which we were sent are overthrown, perhaps some one will say, What then, did they not know that they had to negotiate for a safe return ? But I would reply to such a man, You either have not the genuine feelings of a nobly born man, or else you were not educated like one, and have never been trained in the knowledge of the sacred scriptures ; for men who are truly noble are full of hope, and the laws too implant good hopes in all those who do not study them superficially but with all their hearts. Perhaps these things are meant as a trial of the existing generation to see how they are inclined towards virtue, and whether they have been taught to bear evils with resolute and firm minds, without yielding at the first moment ; all human considerations then are discarded, and let them be discarded, but let an imperishable hope and trust in God the Saviour remain in our soids, as he has often preserved our nation amid inextricable difficulties and distresses."

XXX. These were the sort of things which we said, bewailing at the same time our unexpected calamities, and yet also encouraging one another with the hope of a change to a more tranqud and peaceful state of things. And after a little consideration and delay, we said to those who had brought us this doleful news, " Why sit ye here quietly, having just kindled sparks of eagerness in our ears by which we are set on fire and rendered all in a blaze, when you ought rather to add to what you have told us an account of the causes which have operated on Caius."

And they replied, " You know /the principal and primary cause of all ; for that indeed is universally known to all men. He desires to be considered a god ; and he conceives that the Jews alone are likely to be disobedient ; and that therefore he cannot possibly inflict a greater evil or injury upon them than by defacing and insulting the holy dignity of their temple ; for report prevails that it is the most beautiful of all the temples in the world, inasmuch as it is continually receiving fresh accessions of ornament and has been for an infinite period of time, a never-ending and boundless expense being lavished on it. And as he is a very contentious and quarrelsome man, he thinks of appropriating this edifice wholly to himself. And he is excited now on this subject to a much greater degree than before by a letter ^which Capito has sent to him.

"Capito is the collector of the imperial revenues in Judaea, and on some account or other he is very hostile to the nations of the country ; for having come thither a poor man, and having amassed enormous riches of every imaginable description by plunder and extortion, he has now become afraid lest some accusation may be brought against him, and on this account he has contrived a design by which he may repel any such impeachment, namely, by calumniating those whom he has injured ; and a circumstance which we will now mention, has given him some pretext for carrying out his design.

" There is a city called Jamnia ; one of the most populous cities in all Judaea, which is inhabited by a promiscuous multitude, the greatest number of whom are Jews ; but there are also some persons of other tribes from the neighbouring nations who have settled there to their own destruction, who are in a manner sojourners among the original native citizens, and -who cause them a great deal of trouble, and who do them a great deal of injury, as they are continually violating some of the ancestral national customs of the Jews. These men hearing from travellers who visit the city how exceedingly eager and earnest Caius is about is own deification, and how disposed he is to look unfavourably upon the whole race of Judaea, thinking that they have now an admirable opportunity for attacking them themselves, have erected an extemporaneous altar of the most

contemptible materials, having made clay into bricks for the . sole purpose of plotting against their fellow citizens ; for they knew well that they would never endure to see their customs transgressed ; as was indeed the case.

" For when the Jews saw what they had done, and were very indignant at the holiness and sanctity and beauty of the sacred place being thus obscured and defaced, they collected together and destroyed the altar ; so the sojourners immediately went to Capito who was in reality the contriver of the whole affair ; and he, thinking that he had made a most lucky hit, which he had been seeking for a long time, writes to Caius dilating on the matter and exaggerating it enormously ; and he, when he had read the letter, ordered a colossal statue gilt all over, much more costly and much more magnificent than the rich altar which had been erected in Janmia, by way of insult to be set up in the temple of the metropolis, having for his most excellent and sagacious counsellors Helicon, that man of noble birth, a chattering slave, a perfect scum of the earth, and a fellow of the name of Apelles, a tragic actor, who when in the first bloom of youth, as they say, made a market of his beauty, and when he was past the freshness of youth went on the stage ; and in fact all those who go on the stage selling themselves to the spectators, and to the theatres, are not lovers of temperance and modesty, but rather of the most extreme shamelessness and indecency.

" On this account Apelles was taken into the rank of a fellow counsellor of the emperor, that Caius might have an adviser with whom he might indulge in mocking jests, and with whom he might sing, passing over all considerations of the general welfare of the state, as if everything in every quarter of the globe was enjoying profound peace and tranquillity under the laws.

" Therefore Helicon, this scorpion-like slave, discharged all his Egyptian venom against the Jews ; and Apelles his Ascalonite poison, for he was a native of Ascalon ; and between the people of Ascalon and the inhabitants of the holy land, the Jews, there is an irreconcileable and neverending hostility although they are bordering nations."

When we heard this we were wounded in our souls at every word he said and at every name he mentioned ; but

those admirable advisers of admirable actions a little while afterwards met with the lit reward of their impiety, the one being bound by Caius with iron chains for other causes, and^ being put to the torture and to the rack after periods of relief, as is the case with people affected with intermittent diseases ; and Helicon was put to death by Claudius Grermanicus Caesar, for other wicked actions, that, like a madman as he was, he had committed ; but these occurrences took place at a later date.

XXXI. And the letter respecting the erection of the statue was written not in plain terms, but with as much caution and prudence as possible, taking every measure which could tend to security ; for he commands Petronius, the lieutenant and governor of all Syria, to whom indeed he wrote the letter, to lead half the army which was on the Euphrates, to guard against any passage of that river by any of the eastern kings or nations, into Judsea as an escort to the statue ; not in order to honour its erection with any especial pomp, but to chastise with death any attempt that might be made to hinder it.

What sayest thou, 0 master ? Are you making war upon us, because you anticipate that we will not endure such indignity, but that we will fight on behalf of our laws, and die in defence of our national customs ? For you cannot possibly have been ignorant of what was likely to result from your attempt to introduce these innovations respecting our temple ; but having previously learnt with perfect accuracy what was likely to happen as well as if it had already taken place, and knowing the future as thoroughly as if it were actually present, you commanded your general to bring up an army in order that the statue when erected might be consecrated by the first sacrifice offered to it, being of a most polluted kind, stained with the blood of miserable men and women.

Accordingly Petronius, when he had read what he was commanded to do in this letter, was in great perplexity, not being able to resist the orders sent to him out of fear, for he heard that the emperor s wrath was implacable not only against those who did not do what they were commanded to do, but who did not do it in a moment ; and on the other hand he did not see how it was easy to perform them, for

he knew that the Jews would willingly, if it were possible, endure ten thousand deaths instead of one, rather than submit to see any forbidden thing perpetrated with respect to their religion ; for all men are eager to preserve their own customs and laws, and the Jewish nation above all others ; for looking upon their laws as oracles directly given to them by God himself, and having been instructed in this doctrine i'roin their very earliest infancy they bear in their souls the images of the commandments contained in these laws as sacred ; and secondly, as they continually behold the visible shapes and forms of them, they admire and venerate them in their minds and they admit such foreigners as are disposed to honour and worship them, to do so no less than their own native fellow citizens.

But all who attempt to violate their laws, or to turn them into ridicule, they detest as their bitterest enemies, and they look upon each separate one of the commandments with such awe and reverence that, whether one ought to call it the invariable good fortune or the happiness of the nation, they have never been guilty of the violation of even the most insignificant of them ; but above all other observances their zeal for their holy temple is the most predominant, and vehement, and universal feeling throughout the whole nation ; and the greatest proof of this is that death is inexorably pronounced against all those who enter into the inner circuit of the sacred precincts (for they admit all men from every country into the exterior circuit), unless he be one of their own nation by blood.

Petronius, having regard to these considerations, was very reluctant to attempt what he was commanded to do, considering what a great and wicked piece of daring he should be committing, and invoking all the deliberative powers of his soul as to a council, he inquired into the opinion of each of them, and he found every faculty of his mind agreeing that he should change nothing of these observances and customs which had been hallowed from the beginning of the world ; in the first place because of the natural principles of justice and piety by which they were dictated, and secondly because of the danger which threatened any attempt at innovation upon them, not only from God, but also from the people who would be insulted by such conduct. He also

148 PHILO JDD^US.

gave a thought to the circumstances of the nation itself, to its exceeding populousness, so that it was not contained as every other nation was by the circuit of the one region which was allotted to it for itself, but so that, I may almost say, it had spread over the whole face of the earth ; for it is diffused throughout every continent, and over every island, so that everywhere it appears but little inferior in number to the original native population of the country.

Was it not, then, a most perilous undertaking to draw upon himself such innumerable multitudes of enemies ? And was there not danger of allies and friends from all quarters arriving to their assistance ? It would be a result of very formidable danger and difficulty, besides the fact that the inhabitants of Judaea are infinite in numbers, and a nation of great stature and personal strength, and of great courage and spirit, and men who are wdling to die in defence of their national customs and laws with unshrinking bravery, so that some of those who calumniate them say that their courage (as indeed is perfectly true) is beyond that of any barbarian nation, being the spirit of free and nobly born men.

And the state of all the nations which lie beyond the Euphrates added to his alarm ; for he was aware that Babylon and many others of the satrapies of the east were occupied by the * Jews, knowing this not merely by report but likewise by personal experience ; for every year sacred messengers are sent to convey large amounts of gold and silver to the temple, which has been collected from all the subordinate governments, travelling over rugged, and difficult, and almost impassable roads, which they look upon as level and easy inasmuch as they serve to conduct them to piety.

Therefore, being exceedingly alarmed, as was very natural, lest if they heard of the unprecedented design of erecting this colossal statue in the temple, they might on a sudden direct their march that way and surround him, some on one side and some on the other, so as to hem him in completely, and co-operating with and joining one another might treat the enemy who would be thus enclosed in the midst of them with terrible severity, he hesitated long, attaching great weight to all these considerations.

Then again he was drawn in the opposite direction by considerations of a contrary character, saying to himself,

" This is the command of one who is my master and a young

man, and of one who judges everything which he wishes to

have done to be expedient and becoming, and who is resolved

that everything which he has once decided on shall be at

once performed, even though it may be the most injurious

measure possible and full of all contention and insolence;

and now having passed beyond all human nature he has \/

actually recorded himself to be God ; and great danger of

my life impends over me whether I oppose him or whether

I comply with his commands ; if I comply with them the

result will very probably be war, and one that perhaps may

be attended with doubtful success and which will be far from

turning out as it is expected to do ; and if I oppose him I

shall then be exposed to the open and implacable hatred of

Caius."

And with this opinion of his, many of those Romans who were joined with him in the administration of the affairs of Syria coincided, knowing that the anger of Caius and the punishments which he would inflict would come upon them tirst as being accomplices in the disobedience to the injunctions which he had sent ; but at last when it arrived the fashion of the statue afforded them a pretext for delay during which they might have time for a more deliberate consideration of the matter ; for they did not send any man from Eome (as it appears to me because the providence of God overruled the matter in this way, who thus invisibly stayed the hand of these wicked doers), nor did he command the most skilful man or him who was accounted so in Syria to manage the matter, since while he was pressing on this lawless action with all speed a war was suddenly kindled.

Therefore having now opportunity to consider what course would be most advantageous (for when great events suddenly come altogether, they break down and perplex the mind), he commanded the statue to be made in some one of the bordering regions. Therefore Petronius, sending for the most skilful and renowned artists in Phoenicia, gave them the materials requisite for the making of the statue ; and they took them to Sidon, and there proceeded to make it.

He also sent for the magistrates of the Jews and the priests and rulers of the people, both to announce to them the commands which he had received from Caius and also to

counsel them to submit cheerfully to the commands which had been imposed by their master, and to give due consideration to the dangers before their eyes ; for that the most warlike of the military powers in Syria were all ready, and would soon cover all the country with dead bodies ; for he thought that if he could previously weaken their resolution he would be able by their means to work upon all the rest of the multitude and to persuade them not to oppose the will of the emperor ; but, as was natural, he was wholly disappointed in his expectations ; for it is said indeed that they were amazed at his first words, and that at first they were utterly overwhelmed by his announcement of their real danger and misery, and that they stood speechless and poured forth a ceaseless abundance of tears as if from a fountain, tearing their beards and the hair of their head, and saying, " "We who were formerly very fortunate, have now advanced through many events to an exceeding old age that we might at last behold what no one of our ancestors ever saw. "With what eyes can we endure to look upon these things ? Let them rather be torn out, and let our miserable lives and our afflicted existence be put an end to, before we behold such an evil as this, such an intolerable spectacle which it is impious to hear of or to conceive."

XXXII. In this way did they bewail their fate; but when the inhabitants of the holy city and of all the region round about heard of the design which was in agitation, they all arrayed themselves together as if at a concerted signal, their common misery having given them the word, and went forth in a body, and leaving their cities and their villages and their houses empty, they hastened with one accord into Phoenicia, for Petronius happened to be in that country at the moment. And "when some of the guards of Petronius saw a countless multitude hastening towards tbem they ran to their general to bring him the news, and to warn him to take precautions, as they expected war ; and while they were relating to him what they had seen, he was still without any guards ; and the multitude of the Jews suddenly coming upon him like a cloud, occupied the whole of Phoenicia, and caused great consternation among the Phoenicians who thus beheld the enormous population of the nation ; and at first so great an outcry was raised, accom-

panied with weeping and beating of the breast, that the very ears of those present could not endure the vastness of the noise ; for it did not cease when they ceased, but continued to vibrate even after they were quiet : then there were approaches to the governor, and supplications addressed to him such as the occasion suggested ; for calamities are themselves teachers of what should be done in an existing emergency.

And the multitude was divided into six companies, one of old men, one of young men, one of boys ; and again in their turn one band of aged matrons, one of women in the prime of life, and one of virgins ; and when Petronius appeared at a distance all the ranks, as they had been appointed, fell to the ground, uttering a most doleful howling and lamentation, mingled with supplications. But when he commanded them to rise up, and to come nearer to him, they would for a long time hardly consent to rise, and scattering abundance of dust upon their heads, and shedding abundance of tears, they put both their hands behind them like captives who are fettered in this way, and thus they approached him.

Then the body of the old men, standing before him, addressed him in the following terms : " We are, as you see, without any arms, but yet as we passed along some persons have accused us as being enemies, but even the very weapons of defence with which nature has provided each individual, namely our hands, we have averted from you, and placed in a position where they can do nothing, offering our bodies freely an easy aim to any one who desires to put us to death. We have brought unto you our wives, and our children, and our whole families, and in your person we will prostrate ourselves before Caius, having left not one single person at home, that you may either preserve us all, or destroy us all together by one general and complete destruction. Petronius, we are a peaceful nation, both by our natural disposition and by our determined intentions, and the education which has been industriously and carefully instilled into us has taught us this lesson from our very earliest infancy. When Caius assumed the imperial power we were the first people in all Syria to congratulate him, Vitellius at that time being in our city, from whom you received the government as his successor, to whom writinga

152 PIIILO JUD.EUS.

concerning these matters were sent, and the happy news proceeding onwards from our city, where it had been received with joy, reached the other cities with similar acceptance. Ours was the first temple which received sacrifices for the happy reign of Caius. Did it do so that it might be the first or the only temple to be deprived of its customary modes of worship ?

"We have now left our cities, we have abandoned our houses and our possessious, we will cheerfully contribute to you all our furniture, all our cattle, and all our treasures, everything in short which belongs to us, as a willing booty. "We shall think that we are receiving them, not giving them up. We only ask one thing instead of and to counterbalance all of them, namely, that no innovations may take place in respect of our temple, but that it may be kept such as we have received it from our fathers and our forefathers. And if we cannot prevail with you in this, then we offer up ourselves for destruction, that we may not live to behold a calamity more terrible and grievous than death. We hear that great forces of infantry and cavalry are being prepared by you against us, if we oppose the erection and dedication of this statue. No one is so mad as, when he is a slave, to oppose his master. AVe willingly and readily submit ourselves to be put to death ; let your troops slay us, let them sacrifice us, let them cut us to pieces unresisting and uncontending, let them treat us with every species of cruelty that conquerers can possibly practise, but what need is there of any army ? We ourselves, admirable priests for the purpose, will begin the sacrifice, bringing to the temple our wives and slaying our wives, bringing our brothers and sisters and becoming fratricides, bringing our sons and our daughters, that innocent and guiltless age, and becoming infanticides. Those who endure tragic calamities must needs make use of tragic language. Then standing in the middle of our victims, having bathed ourselves deeply in the blood of our kinsfolk (for such blood will be the only bath which we shall have wherewith to cleanse ourselves for the journey to the shades below), we will miugle our own blood with it, slaughtering ourselves upon their bodies. And when we are dead, let this commandment be inscribed over us as an epitaph, ' Let not even God blame us, who have had a due regard to both

considerations, pious loyalty towards the emperor and the reverential preservation of our established holy laws.'

" And this will be what will be deservedly said of us if we give up our miserable life, holding it in proper contempt. We have heard of a most ancient tradition, which has been handed down throughout Greece by their historians, who have affirmed that the head of the Gorgon had such mighty power, that those who beheld it immediately became stones and rocks. But this appears only to be a fiction and fable, the truth being that great, and unexpected, and wonderful events do often bring after them great disaster ; for instance, the anger of a master causes death, or calamities equivalent to death.

" Do you suppose (may God forbid that any such event should ever take place) that if any of our countrymen were to see this statue being brought into our temple, it would not change them into stones ? Their limbs being all congealed, and their eyes becoming fixed so as not to be capable of motion, and their whole body losing all its natural motions in every one of its united parts and limbs ! "We will, however, now, O Petronius, address to you one last and most righteous and just request ; we say that you ought not to do what you are commanded, but we entreat you to grant us a respite, and we most earnestly supplicate you to delay a Little while till we appoint an embassy, and send it to approach your master, and to convey our entreaties to him. Perhaps in our embassy we may find some argument or other to persuade him, either by bringing before him all the considerations respecting the honour of God, or the preservation of our indestructible and unalterable laws, or by urging upon him that we ought not to be subjected to a worse fate than all the nations even in the very most remote extremities of the earth, who have been allowed to preserve their national customs ; with reference to which his grandfather and great-grandfather came to a righteous decision when they confirmed and set the seal to our customs with all care. Perhaps when he hears these arguments he will be more merciful to us. The intentions of the great do not always continue the same, and those which are adopted in anger are the quickest to change. We have been grievously calumniated. Suffer us to refute the false accusations which

V

have been brought against us. It is hard to be condemned ■without being heard in our own defence.

" And if we fail to convince him, what will after that prevent him from doing the things which be at present intends to do ? Until, then, we have sent this embassy, do not cut off all the hopes of so many myriads of men, since our zeal and earnestness is displayed not in the cause of gain, but in that of religion • though indeed we speak foolishly in using such an expression as that, for what can be a more real and beneficial gain to men than holiness ?"

XXXIII. They uttered these complaints and entreaties with great agony and misery of soul, with exceeding sobbing and difficulty of speech, for all their limbs sweated with apprehension, and their ceaseless tears flowed in torrents, so that all who heard them, and Petronius himself, sympathised with their sorrow, for he was by nature a man very kind | and gentle in his natural disposition, so that he was easily i influenced by what was now said or heard ; and what was said appeared to be entirely just, and the misery of those whom he now beheld appeared most pitiable ; and rising up, and retiring with his fellow counsellors, he took counsel as to what he ought to do, and he saw that those who a short time before opposed the wishes of the Jews with all their might were now wavering and perplexed, and that those who had previously been hesitating were now for the most part inclined to compassion, at which he was pleased.

Nevertheless, though he was well acquainted with the disposition of the emperor, and how implacable and inexorable he was in his auger, he still had himself some sparks of the Jewish philosophy and piety, since he had long ago learnt something of it by reason of his eagerness for learning, and had studied it still more ever since he had come as governor of the countries in which there are vast numbers of Jews scattered over every city of Asia and Syria ; or partly because he was so disposed in his mind from his spontaneous, and natural, and innate inclination for all things which are worthy of care and study.

Moreover, God himself appears often to suggest virtuous ideas to virtuous men, by which, while benefiting others, they will likewise be benefited themselves, which now was the case with Petronius. What then was his resolution ?

K"ot to hurry on the artists, but to persuade them to continue to finish the statue which they had in hand, taking pains and labouring as far as might be possible not to be inferior to the most renowned models, but to take plenty of time, so as to make their work perfect, since things which are done in a hurry are very often inferior, but things which are done with great pains and skill require a length of time. But the embassy which they entreated leave to send he determined not to permit, for he considered that it would not be safe for him to allow it ; still he determined not to oppose those who wished to refer the whole matter to the supreme sovereign and master, but neither to agree with nor to contradict the multitude, for he considered that either line of conduct was fraught with danger.

Moreover, he determined to write a letter to Caius, not in any respect accusing the Jews, and on the other hand not giving any accurate account of their entreaties and supplications, and to explain the delay which was taking place in the erection of the statue, partly because the preparation of it reqiured a certain space of time for its completion, and partly, he reminded him, that the season of the year was in some degree the cause of unavoidable delay, in which there was no question but that Caius must of necessity acquiesce, for it was just at the moment the very height of the wheat harvest and of all the other cereal crops ; and he said that he was afraid lest out of despair of the preservation of their national and hereditary laws and customs, the men might conceive such a contempt for life as either themselves to lay waste their lands, or to burn all the corn-bearing district, whether mountainous or champaign country, and, therefore, that he might require a guard to secure a careful gathering in of the crops, and that not only of such as were borne on the arable land but of those produced by fruit-bearing trees ; for he himself was intending, as is said, to sail to Alexandria in Egypt, but so great a general did not choose to cross the open sea both by reason of the danger and also of the numerous fleet which would be required as his escort, and also from his regard for his own person, as everything requisite for his comfort would be more easily provided if he took the circuitous route through Asia and Syria ; for he would, if he coasted along, be able to sail every day and land every night.

especially if he took with him a sufficient number of ships of war, and not transports, in which a coasting voyage is more successful, just as one across the open sea is better for merchantmen. Therefore it was necessary that abundant quantities of forage and food should be prepared for his cattle in every one of the Syrian cities, and especially in all such as were on the coast, for a numerous multitude would be proceeding both by land and sea, collected not only from Home itself and from Italy, but that which had also followed him from all the other provinces of the empire as far as Syria, being partly the regular guard of the magistrates, and partly the regular army of infantry and cavalry, and the naval force, and also a troop of servants but little inferior in number to the army. Moreover, there was need not only of such an abundance of supplies as might be sufficient for all necessary purposes, but also for all the superfluous prodigality of which Caius was fond. If he reads these writings perhaps he will not only not be angry, but will be even pleased with our prudential caution, as having caused this delay not from any regard for the Jews, but for the sake of providing for the collection of the harvest.

XXXIV. And when his assessors had delivered their opinions, he commanded letters to be written, and appointed active men, who were accustomed to make rapid journeys, to convey them. And they, when they had arrived at their journey's end, delivered the letters ; but the emperor, before he had finished reading them, became swollen with anger, and went on making marks at every page, in fury and indignation ; and when he had come to the end of the letter, he clapped his hands together, saying, " Of a truth, Petronius, you seem but little to comprehend that you are the subject of the emperor; the uninterrupted series of governments to which you have been preferred have filled you with guile. Up to the present time it seems to me that you have no notion of acknowledging that you know, even by hearsay, that Caius is emperor, but you shall very speedily find it out by your own experience, for you are careful about the laws of the Jews, a nation which I hate above every other, and you are indifferent about the imperial commands of your sovereign. You fear the multitude. Had you not with you then the military forces which all the

eastern nations, and the chief of them all, the Parthians, fear ? But you pitied them, you paid more attention to feelings of compassion than to the express commands of Caius.

" Make your pretext of the harvest, but you yourself shall soon find that you have brought on your own head a punishment which cannot be averted by any pretexts or excuses. Blame the necessity for collecting the crops, and for making adequate provision for my armies, for even if a complete scarcity were to oppress Judaea, still are there not vast regions on its borders of great fertility and productiveness, sufficient and able to supply all necessary food, and to make up for the deficiency of one district ? But why do I speak in this way before acting ? And why is there no one who anticipates my intentions ? He who delays shall first find out that he is receiving the wages of his delay by suffering in his own person. I wrill say no more, but I shall not forget the matter."

And after a brief interval, he dictated to one of his secretaries an answer to Petronius, praising him in appearance for his prudence, and for his careful and accurate consideration of the future, for he was very careful with respect to the governors of the provinces, seeing that they had at all times great facilities for making innovations or revolutions, especially if they happened to be in districts of I importance, and in command of powerful armies such as was on the Euphrates for the protection of Syria. Therefore, being very civil to him in words and in his letters, he concealed his anger till a favourable opportunity, though he was very much exasperated ; but at the end of the letter, after having mentioned every other subject, he desired him not to be so anxious about anything as about the speedy erection and dedication of the statue, for that by this time the harvest must have been able to be got in, whether the excuse was originally an honest and true or only a plausible one.

XXXV. However a short time afterwards King Agrippa arrived in Borne, according to custom, to pay his respects to Caius, and he knew absolutely nothing either of what Petronius had written in his letter, or of what Caius had written in his first or second epistle, but by his irregular motions and agitations, and by the excitement which sbone

in his eyes, he conjectured that he had some anger smouldering beneath, and he considered, and pondered, and turned over every matter in every direction, racking his brain for every reason, whether great or small, to see whether he had said or done anything unbecoming, and when he felt sure that he had done absolutely nothing, he conjectured, as was natural, that it was some one else with whom he was offended. But again, when he saw that he looked morosely at him, and that he kept his eyes continually fixed on him, and on no one else who was ever present, he began to be alarmed, and though he often thought of putting the question to him, he restrained himself, reflecting in this manner : " Perhaps by doing so I may draw down on myself the threats which as it is are destined for others, by bringing upon myself a suspicion of being a busybody, and a rash s and audacious man."

Therefore, when Caius saw that he was in a state of great alarm and perplexity, for he was very acute at comprehending a man's inmost designs and feelings from his outward appearance and expression of countenance, he said, " You are embarrassed, O Agrippa. I will relieve you from your perplexity. Though you have lived with me for such a length of time, are you yet ignorant that I speak not only with my voice, but also with my eyes, intimating everything, to say the least of it, as much in one way as in the other ? Your loyal and excellent fellow citizens, the only nation of men upon the whole face of the earth by whom Caius is not esteemed to be a god, appear now to be even desiring to /plot my death in their obstinate disobedience, for when I commanded my statue in the character of Jupiter to be erected in their temple, they raised the whole of their 'people, and quitted the city and the whole country in a body, under pretence of addressing a petition to me, but in reality being determined to act in a manner contrary to the commands which I had imposed upon them."

And when he was about to add other charges against them Agrippa fell into such a state of grief that he changed into all sorts of colours, becoming at the same moment bloodshot, and pale, and livid, for he was all over agitation and trembling from the top of his head down to his feet, and a quivering and shaking seized upon and disordered all

ON THE VIRTUES AND OFFICE OF AMBASSADOPvS. 1 &9

"his limbs and every member of his body, all his sinews, and muscles, and nerves being relaxed and enfeebled, so that he fainted away, and would have fallen down if some of the bystanders had not supported him.

And they being commanded to carry him home, bore him to his palace, where he lay for some time in a state of torpor without any one understanding what sudden misfortune had brought him into this state. Therefore Caius was exasperated still more against our nation, and cherished a more furious anger against us than before, " For," said he, " if Agrippa, who is my most intimate and dearest friend, i and one bound to me by so many benefits, is so completely under the influence of his national customs that he cannot I bear even to hear a word against them, but faints away to such a degree as to be near dying, what must one expect will be the feelings of others who have no motive or influence to draw them the other wray ?"

Agrippa, then, during all that day and the greater portion of the next day, lay in a state of profound stupor, being completely unconscious of everything that passed ; but about evening he raised his head a little, and for a short time opened, though with difficulty, his languid eyes, and with dim and indistinct vision looked upon the people who surrounded him, though he was not as yet able to distinguish clearly between their several forms and features ; and then again relapsing into sleep, he became tranquil, getting into a better condition than at first, as those about him could conjecture from his breathing and from the state of his body.

And afterwards, when he awoke again, and rose up, he asked, " Where now am I ? Am I with Caius ? Is my lord himself here ?" * And they replied, " Be of good cheer ; you are by yourself in your own palace. Caius i3 not here. You have now had a sufficient tranquil sleep, but now turn and raise yourself, and rest upon your elbow, and recognise those who are about you ; they are all your own people, those of your friends, and freedmen, and domestics, who honour you above all others, and who are honoured by you in return." And he, for he was now beginning to recover from his state of stupefaction, saw feelings of sympathy in every one's face, and when his physicians

1G0 PHILO JUD^US.

ordered most of them to leave the room, that they might refresh his body with anointing and seasonable food, " Go," said he, " for you must by all means take care that I may have a more carefully regulated way of life, for it is not sufficient for me, unfortunate man that I am, to ward off hunger by a bare, and scanty, and economical, and precise use of necessary food ; nor should I have attended to any such matters if it had not been my object to provide my miserable nation with the last resource which my mind suggests to me by way of assisting it." Accordingly, he, shedding abundance of tears, and eating just what was necessary without any sauce or seasoning, and drinking no mixed wine but only tasting water, soon left off eating. "My miserable stomach," said he, "recoils from the things which it demanded ; and now what ought I to do but address myself to Caius with respect to existing circumstances ?"

XXXVI. And having taken tablets, he writes to him in the following manner: "O master, four and shame have taken from me all courage to come into your presence to address you ; since fear teaches me to dread your threats ; and shame, out of respect for the greatness of your power and dignity, keeps me silent. But a writing will show my request, which I now here offer to you as my earnest petition. In all men, O emperor ! a love of their country is innate, and an eager for dness for their national customs and laws. And concerning these matters there is no need that I should give you information, since you have a heart-felt love of your own country, and a deeply-seated respect for your national customs. And what belongs to themselves appears beautiful to every one, even if it is not so in reality; for they judge of these things not more by reason than by the feelings of affection. And I am, as you know, a Jew ; and Jerusalem is my country, in which there is erected the holy temple of -the most high God. And I have kings for my grandfathers and for my ancestors, the greater part of whom have been called high priests, looking upon their royal power as inferior to their office as priests ; and thinking that the hio-h priesthood is as much superior to the power of a kin"-, as God is superior to man ; for that the one is occupied in rendering service to God, and the other has only the care of governing them. Accordingly I, being one of this nation,

and being attached to this country and to such a temple, address to you this petition on behalf of them all ; on behalf of the nation, that it may not be looked upon by you in a light contrary to the true one ; since it is a most pious and holy nation, and one from the beginning most loyally disposed to your family.

" For in all the particulars in which men are enjoined by the laws, and in which they have it in their power to show their piety and loyalty, my nation is inferior to none whatever in Asia or in Europe, whether it be in respect of prayers, or of the supply of sacred offerings, or in the abundance of its sacrifices, not merely of such as are offered on occasions of the public festivals, but in those which are continually offered day after day ; by which means they show their loyalty and fidelity more surely than by their mouth and tongue, proving it by the designs of their honest hearts, not indeed saying that they are friends to Caesar, but being so in reality.

" Concerning the holy city I must now say what is necessary. It, as I have already stated, is my native country, and the metropolis, not only of the one country of Judaea, but also of many, by reason of the colonies which it has sent out from time to time into the bordering districts of Egypt, Phoenicia, Syria in general, and especially that part of it which is called Ccelo-Syria, and also with those more distant regions of Pamphylia, Cilicia, the greater part of Asia Minor as far as Bithynia, and the furthermost corners of Pontus. And in the same manner into Europe, into Thessaly, and Bceotia, and Macedonia, and iEtolia, and Attica, and Argos, and Corinth and all the most fertde and wealthiest districts of Peloponnesus. And not only are the continents full of Jewish colonies, but also all the most celebrated islands are so too ; such as Euboea, and Cyprus, and Crete.

" I say nothing of the countries beyond the Euphrates, for all of them except a very small portion, and Babylon, and all the satrapies around, which have any advantages whatever of soil or climate, have Jews settled in them. So that if my native land is, as it reasonably may be, looked upon as entitled to a share in your favour, it is not one city only that would then be benefited by you, but ten thousand of them in every region of the habitable world, in Europe, in

VOL. IV. M

Asia, and in Africa, on the continent, in the islands, on the coasts, and in the inland parts. And it corresponds well to the greatness of your good fortune, that, by conferring benefits on one city, you should also benefit ten thousand others, so that your renown may be celebrated in every part of the habitable world, and many praises of you may be combined with thanksgiving.

" Tou have thought the native countries of some of your friends worthy of being admitted to share all the privileges of the Eoman constitution ; and those who but a little while ago were slaves, became the masters of others who also enjoyed your favour in a higher, or at all events not in a lower degree, and they were delighted too at the causes of your beneficence. And I indeed am perfectly aware that I belong to the class which is in subjection to a lord and master, and also that I am admitted to the honour of being one of your companions, being inferior to you in respect of my birthright and natural rank, and inferior to no one whomsoever, not to say the most eminent of all men, in good will and loyalty towards you, both because that is my natural disposition, and also in consequence of the number of benefits with which you have enriched me ; so that if I in consequence had felt confidence to implore you myself on behalf of my country, if not to grant to it the Eoman constitution, at least to confer freedom and a remission of taxes on it, I should not have thought that I had any reason to fear your displeasure for preferring such a petition to you, and for requesting that most desirable of all things, your favour, which it can do you no harm to grant, and which is the most advantageous of all things for my country to receive.

" For what can possibly be a more desirable blessing for a subject nation than the good will of its sovereign ? It was at Jerusalem, O emperor ! that your most desirable succession to the empire was first announced; and the news of vour advancement spread from the holy city all over the continent on each side, and was received with great gladness. And on this account that city deserves to meet with favour at your hands ; for, as in families the eldest children receive the highest honours as their birthright, because they were the first to give the name of father and mother to their

parents, so, in like manner, since this is first of all the cities in the east to salute you as emperor, it ought to receive greater benefit from you than auy other ; or if not greater, at all events as great as any other city.

"Having now advanced these pleas on the ground of justice, and made these petitions on behalf of my native country, I now come at last to my supplication on behalf of the temple. O my lord and master, Caius ! this temple has never, from the time of its original foundation until now, admitted any form made by hands, because it has been the abode of God. Now, pictures and images are only imitations of those gods who are perceptible to the outward senses ; but it was not considered by our ancestors to be consistent with the reverence due to God to make any image or representation of the invisible God. Agrippa, when he came to the temple, did honour to it, and he was thy grandfather ; and so did Augustus, when by his letters he commanded all first fruits from all quarters to be sent thither ; and by the continual

sacrifice. And thy great grandmother

" On which account, no one, whether Greek or barbarian, satrap, or king, or implacable enemy ; no sedition, no war, no capture, no destruction, no occurrence that has ever taken place, has ever threatened this temple with such innovation as to place in it any image, or statue, or any work of any kind made with hands ; for, though enemies have displayed their hostility to the inhabitants of the country, still, either reverence or fear has possessed them sufficiently to prevent them from abrogating any of the laws which were established at the beginning, as tending to the honour of the Creator and Father of the universe ; for they knew that it is these and similar actions which bring after them the irremediable calamities of heaven-sent afflictions. On Avhich account they have been careful not to sow an impious seed, fearing lest they should be compelled to reap its natural harvest, in a fruit bearing utter destruction.

XXXVII. "But why need I invoke the assistance of foreign witnesses when I have plenty with whom I can furnish you from among your own countrymen and friends ? Marcus Agrippa, your own grandfather on the mother's aide, the moment that he arrived in Juda>a, when llerod,

1C4 PHILO JUD^US.

my grandfather, was king of the country, thought fit to go up from the sea-coast to the metropolis, which was inland. And when he had beheld the temple, and the decorations of the priests, and the piety and holiness of the people of the country, he marvelled, looking upon the whole matter as one of great solemnity and entitled to great respect, and thinking that he had beheld what was too magnificent to be described. And he could talk of nothing else to his companions but the magnificence of the temple and every thing connected with it.

" Therefore, every day that he remained in the city, by reason of his friendship for Herod, he went to that sacred place, being delighted with the spectacle of the building, and of the sacrifices, and all the ceremonies connected with the worship of Grod, and the regularity which was observed, and the dignity and honour paid to the high priest, and his grandeur when arrayed in his sacred vestments and when about to begin the sacrifices. And after he had adorned the temple with all the offerings in his power to contribute, and had conferred many benefits on the inhabitants, doing them many important services, and having said to Herod many friendly things, and having been replied to in corresponding terms, he was conducted back again to the sea coast, and to the harbour, and that not by one city only but by the whole country, having branches strewed in his road, and being greatly admired and respected for his piety.

" What again did your other grandfather, Tiberius Caesar, do ? does not he appear to have adopted an exactly similar line of conduct ? At all events, during the three and twenty years that he was emperor, he preserved the form of worship in the temple as it had been handed down from the earliest times, without abrogating or altering the slightest particular of it.

XXXVIII. " Moreover, I have it in my power to relate one act of ambition on his part, though I suffered an infinite number of evils when he was alive ; but nevertheless the truth is considered dear, and much to be honoured by you. Pilate was one of the emperor's lieutenants, having been appointed governor of Judaea. He, not more with the odject of doing honour to Tiberius than with that of vexing

ON THE VIRTUES AND OFFICE OF AMBASSADORS. 1G5

the multitude; dedicated some gilt shields in the palace of Herod, in the holy city ; which had no form nor any other forbidden thing represented on them except some necessary inscription, which mentioned these two facts, the name of the person who had placed them there, and the person in whose honour they were so placed there. But when the multitude heard what had been done, and when the circumstance became notorious, then the people, putting forward the four sons of the king, who were in no respect inferior to the kings themselves, in fortune or in rank, and his other descendants, and those magistrates who were among them at the time, entreated him to alter and to rectify the innovation which he had committed in respect of the shields ; and not to make any alteration in their national customs, which had hitherto been preserved without any interruption, without being in the least degree changed by any kiug or emperor.

" But when he steadfastly refused this petition (for he was a man of a very inflexible disposition, and very merciless as well as very obstinate), they cried out: 'Do not cause a sedition ; do not make war upon us ; do not destroy the peace which exists. The honour of the emperor is not identical with dishonour to the ancient laws ; let it not be to you a pretence for heaping insult on our nation. Tiberius is not desirous that any of our laws or customs shall be destroyed. And if you yourself say that he is, show us either some command from him, or some letter, or something of the kiud, that we, who have been sent to you as ambassadors, may cease to trouble you, and may address our supplications to your master.'

" But this last sentence exasperated him in the greatest possible degree, as he feared lest they might in reality go on an embassy to the emperor, and might impeach him with respect to other particulars of his government, in respect of his corruption, and his acts of insolence, and his rapine, and his habit of insulting people, and his cruelty, and his continual murders of people untried and uncondemned, and his never ending, and gratuitous, and most grievous inhumanity. Therefore, being exceedingly angry, and being at all times a man of most ferocious passions, he was in great perplexity, neither venturing to take down what he

166 PHILO JUDJETJS.

had once set up, nor wishing to do any tiling which could be acceptable to his subjects, and at the same time being sufficiently acquainted with the firmness of Tiberius on these points. And those who were in power in our nation, seeing this, and perceiving that he was inclined to change his mind as to what he had done, but that he was not willing to be thought to do so, wrote a most supplicatory letter to Tiberius. And he, when he had read it, what did he say of Pilate, and what threats did he utter against him ! But it is beside our purpose at present to relate to you how very angry he was, although he was not very liable to sudden anger ; since the facts speak for themselves ; for immediately, without putting any thing off till the next day, he wrote a letter, reproaching and reviling him in the most bitter manner for his act of unprecedented audacity and wickedness, and commanding him immediately to take down the shields and to convey them away from the metropolis of Judsea to Csesarea, on the sea which had been named Csesarea Augusta, after his grandfather, in order that they might be set up in the temple of Augustus. And accordingly, they were set up in that edifice. And in this way he provided for two matters : both for the honour due to the emperor, and for the preservation of the ancient customs of the city.

XXXIX. " Now the things set up on that occasion were shields, on which there was no representation of any living thing whatever engraved. But now the thing proposed to be erected is a colossal statue. Moreover, then the erection was in the dwelling-hoii3e of the governor; but they say, that which is now contemplated is to be in the inmost part of the temple, in the very holy of holies itself, into which, once in the year, the high priest enters, on the day called the great fast, to offer incense, and on no other day, being then about in accordance with our national law also to offer up prayers for a fertile and ample supply of blessings, and for peace to all mankind. And if any one else, I will not say of the Jews, but even of the priests, and those not of the lowest order, but even those who are in the rank next to the first, should go in there, either with him or after him, or even if the very high priest himself should enter in thither on two days in the year, or three or four times on the same

day, he is subjected to inevitable deatb for his impiety, so great are the precautions taken by our lawgiver with respect to the holy of holies, as he determined to preserve it alone inaccessible to and untouched by any human being.

" How many deaths then do you not suppose that the people, who have been taught to regard this place with such holy reverence, would willingly endure rather than see a statue introduced into it ? I verily believe that they would rather slay all their whole families, with their wives and children, and themselves last of all, in the ruins of their houses and families, and Tiberius knew this well. And what did your great-grandfather, the most excellent of all emperors that ever lived upon the earth, he who was the first to have the appellation of Augustus given him, on account of his virtue and good fortune ; he who diffused peace in every direction over earth and sea, to the very furthest extremities of the world ? Did not he, when he had heard a report of the peculiar characteristics of our temple, and that there is in it no image or representation made by hands, no visible likeness of Him who is invisible, no attempt at any imitation of his nature, did not he, I say, marvel at and honour it ? for as he was imbued with something more than a mere smattering of philosophy, inasmuch as he had deeply feasted on it, and continued to feast on it every day, he partly retraced in his recollection all the precepts of philosophy which his mind had previously learnt, and partly also he kept his learning alive by the conversation of the literary men who were always about him ; for at his banquets and entertainments, the greatest part of the time was devoted to learned conversation, in order that not only his friends' bodies but their minds also might be nourished.

XL. " And though I might be able to establish this fact, and demonstrate to you the feelings of Augustus, your great grandfather, by an abundance of proofs, I will be content with two ; for, in the first place, he sent commandments to all the governors of the different provinces throughout Asia, because he heard that the sacred first fruits were neglected, enjoining them to permit the Jews alone to assemble together in the synagogues, for that these assemblies were not revels, which from drunkenness and intoxication proceeded to violence, so as to disturb the peaceful condition of

1C8 PHILO JUD.EUS.

the country, but were rather schools of temperance and justice, as the men "who met in them were studiers of virtue, and contributed the first fruits every year, sending commissioners to convey the holy things to the temple in Jerusalem.

" And, in the next place, he commanded that no one should hinder the Jews, either on their way to the synagogues, or when bringing their contributions, or when proceeding in obedience to their national laws to Jerusalem, for these things were expressly enjoined, if not in so many words, at all events in effect ; and I subjoin one letter, in order to bring conviction to you who are our master, what Caius Norbanus Flaccus wrote, in which he details what had been written to him by Caesar, and the superscription of the letter is as follows : — ■

CAIUS NOEBANUS ELACCUS, PROCONSUL, TO THE GOVERNORS

OF THE EPHESIANS, GREETING.

" ' Caesar has written word to me, that the Jews, wherever they are, are accustomed to assemble together, in compliance with a peculiar ancient custom of their nation, to contribute money which they send to Jerusalem ; and he does not choose that they should have any hindrance offered to them, to prevent them from doing this ; therefore I have written to you, that you may know that I command that they shall be allowed to do these things.'

" Is not this a most convincing proof, O emperor, of the intention of Caesar respecting the honours paid to our temple which he had adopted, not considering it right that because of some general rule, with respect to meetings, the assemblies of the Jews, in one place should be put down, which they held for the sake of offering the first fruits, and for other pious objects ?

" There is also another piece of evidence, in no respect inferior to this one, and which is the most undeniable proof of the will of Augustus, for he commanded perfect sacrifices of whole burnt offerings to be offered up to the most high God every day, out of his own revenues, which are performed up to the present time, and the victims are two sheep and a bull, with which Caesar honoured the altar 01 God, well knowing that there is in the temple no image

erected, either in open sight or in any secret part of it. But that great ruler, who was inferior to no one in philosophy, considered within himself, that it is necessary in terrestrial tilings, that an especial holy place should be set apart for the invisible God, who will not permit any visible representation of himself to be made, by which to arrive at a participation in favourable hopes and the enjoyment of perfect blessings.

" And your grandmother, Julia Augusta, following the example of so great a guide in the paths of piety, did also adorn the temple with some golden vials and censers, and with a great number of other offerings, of the most costly and magnificent description; and what was her object in doing this, when there is no statue erected within the temple ? for the minds of women are, in some degree, weaker than those of men, and are not so well able to comprehend a thing which is appreciable only by the intellect, without any aid of objects addressed to the outward senses ; but she, as she surpassed all her sex in other particulars, so also waa she superior to them in this, by reason of the pure learning and wisdom which had been implanted in her, both by nature and by study ; so that, having a masculine intellect, she was so sharpsighted and profound, that she comprehended what is appreciable only by the intellect, even more than those things which are perceptible by the outward senses, and looked upon the latter as only shadows of the former.

XLI. " Therefore, O master, having all these examples most nearly connected with yourself and your family, of our purposes and customs, derived from those from whom you are sprung, of whom you are born, and by whom you have been brought up, I implore you to preserve those principles which each of those persons whom I have mentioned did preserve ; they who were themselves possessed of imperial power do, by their laws, exhort you, the emperor ; they who were august, speak to you who are also Augustus ; your grandfathers and ancestors speak to their descendant ; numbers of authorities address one individual, all but saying, in express words : Do not you destroy those things in our councils which remain, and which have been preserved as permanent laws to this very day ; for even if no mischief

were to ensue from the abrogation of them, still, at all events, the result would be a feeling of uncertainty respecting the future, and such uncertainty is full of fear, even to the most sanguine and confident, if they are not despisers of divine things.

" If I were to enumerate the benefits which I myself have received at your hands, the day would be too short for me ; besides the fact that it is not proper for one who has undertaken to speak on one subject to branch off to a digression about some other matter. And even if I should be silent, the facts themselves speak and utter a distinct voice. You released me when I was bound in chains and iron. Who is there who is ignorant of this ? But do not, after having done so, 0 emperor! bind me in bonds of still greater bitterness: for the chains from which you released me surrounded a part of my body, but those which I am now anticipating are the chains of the soul, which are likely to oppress it wholly and in every part ; you abated from me a fear of death, continually suspended over my head; you received me when I was almost dead through fear; you raised me up as it were from the dead. Continue your favour, O master, that your Agrippa may not be driven wholly to forsake life ; for I shall appear (if you do not do so) to have been released from bondage, not for the purpose of being saved, but for that of being made to perish in a more conspicuous manner.

" You have given me the greatest and most glorious inheritance among mankind, the rank and power of a king, at first over one district, then over another and a more important one, adding to my kingdom the district called Trachonitis and Galilee. Do not then, O master ! after having loaded me with means of superfluity, deprive me of what is actually necessary. Do not, after you have raised me up to the most brilliant light, cast me down again from my eminence to the most profound darkness. I am willing to descend from this splendid position in which you have placed me ; I do not deprecate a return to the condition in which I was a short time ago ; I will give up everything ; I look upon everything as of less importance than the one point of preserving the ancient customs and laws of my nation unaltered ; for if they are violated, what could I say, either to my

OX THE VIRTUES AND OFFICE OF AMBASSADORS. 171

fellow countrymen or to any other men ? It would follow of necessity that I must be looked upon as one of two things, either as a betrayer of ray people, or as one who is no longer accounted a friend by you. And what could be a greater misery than either of these two things ? For if I am still reckoned among the company of your friends, I shall then receive the imputation of treason against my own nation, if neither my country is preserved free from all misfortune, nor even the temple left inviolate. For you, great men, preserve the property of your companions and of those who take refuge in your protection by your imperial splendour and magnificence. And if you have any secret grief or vexation in your mind, do not throw me into prison, like Tiberius, but deliver me from any anticipation of being thrown into prison at any future time ; command me at once to be put out of the way. For what advantage would it be to me to live, who place my whole hopes of safety and happiness in your friendship and favour?"

XLII. Having written this letter and sealed it, he sent it to Caius, and then shutting himself up he remained in his own house, full of agony, confusion, and disorder, and anxiety, as to what was the best way of approaching and addressing the emperor ; for he and his people had incurred no slight danger, but they had reason to apprehend expulsion from their country, and slavery, and utter destruction, as impending not only over those who were dwelling in the holy land, but over all the Jews in every part of the world.

But the emperor, having taken the letter and read it, and having considered every suggestion which was contained in it, was very angry, because his intentions had not been executed : and yet, at the same time, he was moved by the appeals to his justice and by the supplications which were thus addressed to him, and in some respects he was pleased with Agrippa, and in some he blamed him. He blamed him " for his excessive desire to please his fellow countrymen, who were the only men who had resisted his orders and shown any unwillingness to submit to his deification ; but he praised him for concealing and disguising none of his feelings, wrhich conduct he said was a proof of a liberal and noble disposition. Therefore being somewhat appeased, at least as far as appearance went, he condescended to return

a somewhat favourable answer, granting to Agrippa that highest and greatest of all favours, the consent that this erection of his statue should not take place ; and he commanded letters to be written to Publius Petronius the governor of Syria, enjoining him not to allow any alterations or innovations to be made with respect to the temple of the Jews. Nevertheless, though he did grant him the favour, he did not grant it without any alloy, but he mingled with it a grievous terror; for he added to the letter, —

" If any people in the bordering countries, with the exception of the metropolis itself, wishing to erect altars or temples, nay, images or statues, in honour of me and of my family are hindered from doing so, I charge you at once to punish those who attempt to binder them, or else to bring them before the tribunal." Now this was nothing else but a beginning of seditions and civil wars, and an indirect way of annulling the gift which he appeared to be granting. For some men, more out of a desire of mortifying the Jews than from any feelings of loyalty towards Caius, were inclined to | fill the whole country with erections of one kind or another. But they who beheld the violation of their national customs practised before their eyes were resolved above all things not to endure such an injury unresistingly. But Caius, judging those who were thus excited to disobedience to be worthy of the most severe punishment possible, a second time orders his statue to be erected in the temple. But bv the providence and care of God, who beholds all things and governs all things in accordance with justice, not one of the neighbouring nations made any movement at all •, so that there was no occasion for these commands being carried into effect, and these inexorably appointed calamities all terminated in only a moderate degree of blame.

What advantage, then, was gained ? some one wdl say ; for even when they were quiet, Caius was not quiet ; but he had already repented of the favour which he had showed to Agrippa, and had re-kindled the desires which he had entertained a little while before ; for he commanded another statue to be made, of colossal size, of brass gilt over, in Rome, no longer moving the one wrhich had been made in Sidon, in order that the people might not be excited by its being moved, but that while they remained in a state of tranquillity

and felt released from their suspicions, it might in a period of peace be suddenly brought to the country in a ship, and be suddenly erected without the multitude being aware of what was going on.

XLIII. And he was intending to do this while on his voyage along the coast during the period which he had allotted for his sojourn in Egypt. For an indescribable de- \ sire occupied his mind to see Alexandria, to which he was eager to go with all imaginable haste, and when he had arrived there he intended to remain a considerable time, uro-iner that the deification about which he was so anxious, might easily be originated and carried to a great height in that city above all others, and then that it would be a model to all other cities of the adoration to which he was entitled, inasmuch as it was the greatest of all the cities of the east, and built in the finest situation in the world. For all inferior men and nations are eager to imitate great men and great states.

Moreover, Caius was in other respects a man in wdiose nature there was nothing stable or trustworthy so that, even if he did anything good or kind, he speedily repented of it, and in such a manner that he soon attempted to annul what he had done in such a way as to cause even greater affliction and injury to those whom he had favoured. For instance, he released some prisoners, and then for no reason whatever he threw them into prison a second time, inflicting upon them a second calamity more grievous than the first, namely, that which was caused by unexpected misfortune. Again, he condemned some persons to banishment who had expected sentence of death ; not because they were conscious of having committed crimes deserving of death, or indeed of any punishment at all, even the lightest, but because of the extravagant inhumanity of their master they J did not expect to escape. Now to these men, banishment was a downright gain, and equivalent almost to a restoration, since they looked upon it that they had escaped the greatest of all evd's, the danger of death. But no long period elapsed brfore he sent some soldiers after them, though no new circumstances had arisen, and put to death simultaneously the most excellent and nobly -born of the exiles who were j living in the difl'erent islands as their own countries, and'

who were bearing their misfortunes in the most contented manner, inflicting in this way the greatest and most pitiable and unexpected misery on many of the noblest families in Rome.

And if he ever gave any one a sum of money as a gift, he demanded it back again at some future time, not a simple loan but he also required interest and compound interest, and often treating the persons themselves who had received it from him as thieves, and punishing them with the severest penalties for having stolen it ; for he was not contented that those miserable men should return what had been given to them, but he compelled them also to give up all their property which they had inherited from their parents, or relations, or from any friends, or which, having selected a life of industry and profit, they had acquired by their own resources.

And those who appeared to be in the greatest credit with him, and who lived with him hi a round of pleasure, as one may say, with great appearances of friendship and good will, were greatly injured by him, being compelled to expend large sums in irregular, and illegal, and sudden journeys, and in entertainments ; for they lavished whole properties in the preparation of a single banquet, so that they were compelled to have recourse to usurers, so vast was his prodigality ; therefore many men deprecated the receiving of any favours from him, thinking not only that it was of no advantage, but even that they were only a bait and a snare to lead them into intolerable suffering.

So great therefore was his inequality of temper towards every one, and most especially towards the nation of the Jews to which he was most bitterly hostile, and accordingly beginning in Alexandria he took from them all their synagogues there, and in the other cities, and filled them all with images and statues of his own form ; for not caring about any other erection of any kind, he set up his own statue every where by main force ; and the great temple in the holy city, which was left untouched to the last, having I been thought worthy of all possible respect and preservation, he altered and transformed into a temple of his own, that he might call it the temple of the new Jupiter, the illustrious Caius.

What is this that you say ? Do you, who are a man, seek to take to yourself the air and the heaven, not being content with the vast multitude of continents, and islands, and nations, and countries of which you enjoy the sovereignty ? And do you not think any one of the gods who are worshipped in that city or by our people worthy of any country or city or even of any small precinct which may have been consecrated to them in old time, and dedicated to them with oracles and sacred hymns, and are you intending to deprive them of that, that in all the vast circumference of the world there may be no visible trace or memorial to be found of any honour or pious worship paid to the true real living God ? Truly you are suggesting fine hopes to the race of mankind ; are you ignorant that you are opening the fountains of evils of every kind, making innovations, and committing acts of audacious impiety such as it is wicked to do and even to think of ?

XLIV. It is worth while to make mention of what we both saw and heard, when we were sent for to encounter a contest on behalf of our national constitution ; for the moment that we entered into the presence of the emperor we perceived, from his looks and from the state of agitation in which he was, that we had come not before a judge but before an accuser, or rather I should say before the open enemy of those whom he looked upon as opposed to his will ; for it would have been the part of a judge to sit with assessors selected because of their virtue and learning, when a question of the greatest importance was being investigated which had lain dormant for four hundred years, and which was now raised for the first time among many myriads of Alexandrian Jews ; and it would have been proper for the contending parties with their advocates to stand on each side of him, and for him to listen to them both in turn ; first to the accusation and then in turn to the defence, according to a period measured by water,* and then retiring the judge should deliberate with his assessors as to what he ought publicly to deliver as his sentence on the justice of the case ; but what was actually done resembled rather the

The time allotted to the speeches of advocates in the Athenian courts of justice was measured by a water-clock, K\i\pvSpa, something like our hour-glass of sand.

conduct of an implacable tyrant, exhibiting uncontrolled authority and displeasure and pride.

For besides that he in no particular behaved in the manner which I have just been describing as proper, having sent for the managers of two gardens, the Msecenatian and the Lamian garden, and they are near one another and close to the city, in which he had spent three or four days, for that was the place in which this theatrical spectacle, aimed at the happiness of a whole nation, was intended to be enacted in our presence, he commanded all the outer buildings to be opened for him, for that he wished to examine them all. minutely ; but we, as soon as we were introduced into his presence, the moment that we saw him, bent to the ground with all imaginable respect and adoration, and saluted him calling him the emperor Augustus ; and he replied to us in such a gentle and courteous and humane manner that we not only despaired of attaining our object, but even of preserving our lives ; for, said he, " You are haters of God, inasmuch as you do not think that I am a god, I who am already confessed to be a god by every other nation, but who am refused that appellation by you." And then, stretching up his hands to heaven, he uttered an ejaculation which it was impious to hear, much more would it be so to repeat it literally.

And immediately all the ambassadors of the opposite portion were filled with all imaginable joy, thinking that their embassy was already successful, on account of the first words uttered by Caius, and so they clapped their hands and danced for joy, and called him by every title which is applicable to any one of the gods.

XLV. And while he was triumphing in these superhuman appellations, the sycophant Isidorus, seeing the temper in which he was, said, " O master, you will hate with still j lister vehemence these men whom you see before you ; and their fellow countrymen, if you are made acquainted with 1 their disaffection and disloyalty towards yourself; for when all other men were offering up sacrifices of thanksgiving for your safety, these men alone refused to offer any sacrifice at all ; and when I say, ' these men,' I comprehend all the rest of the Jews." And when we all cried out with one accord, " 0 Lord Caius, we are falsely accused ; for we did

sacrifice, and we offered up entire hecatombs, the blood of which we poured in a libation upon the altar, and the flesh we did not carry to our homes to make a feast and banquet upon it, as it is the custom of some people to do, but we committed the victims entire to the sacred flame as a burnt offering: and we have done this three times already, and not once only ; on the first occasion when you succeeded to the empire, and the second time when you recovered from that terrible disease with which all the habitable world was afflicted at the same time, and the third time we sacrificed in hope of your victory over the Germans."

"Grant," said he, "that all this is true, and that you did sacrifice; nevertheless you sacrificed to another god, and not for my sake ; and then what good did you do me ? Moreover you did not sacrifice to me." Immediately a profound shuddering came upon us the first moment that we heard this expression, similar to that which overwhelmed us when we first came into his presence. And while he was saying this he entered into the outer buildings, examining the chambers of the men and the chambers of the women, and the rooms on the ground floor, and all the apartments in the upper story, and blaming some points of their preparation as defective, and planning alterations and suggesting designs, and giving orders himself to make them more costly and then we being driven about in this way followed him up and down through the whole place, being mocked and ridiculed by our adversaries like people at a play in the theatre ; for indeed the whole matter was a kind of farce : the. judge assumed the part of an accuser, and the accusers the part of an unjust judge, who look upon the defendants with an eye of hostility, and act in accordance with the nature of truth. And when a judge invested with such mighty power begins to reproach the person who is on his trial before him it is necessary to be silent ; for it is possible even to defend one's self in silence, and especially for people who are able to make no reply on any of the subjects which he was now investigating and desiring to understand, inasmuch as our laws and our customs restrained our tongues, and shut and sewed up our mouths.

But when he had given some of his orders about the

VOL. IV. N

buildings, lie then asked a very important and solemn question; "why is it that you abstain from eating pig's flesh?" Aud then again at this question such a violent laughter was raised by our adversaries, partly because they were really delighted, and partly as they wished to court the emperor out of flattery, and therefore wished to make it appear that this question was dictated by wit and uttered with grace, that some of the servants who were following him were indignant at their appearing to treat the emperor with so little respect, since it was not safe for his most intimate /friends to do so much as smile at his words. And when we ' made answer that, " different nations have different laws, and there are some things of which the use is forbidden both to us and to our adversaries ;" and when some one said, " there are also many people who do not eat lamb's flesh which is the most tender of all meat," he laughed and said, "they are quite right, for it is not nice." Being joked with and trifled with and ridiculed in this manner, we were in great perplexity ; and at last he said in a rapid and peremptory manner, " I desire to know what principles of justice you recognise with regard to your constitution."

And when we began to reply to him and to explain it, he, as soon as he had a taste of our pleading on the principles of justice, and as soon as he perceived that our arguments were not contemptible, before we could bring forward the more important things which we had to say, cut us short and ran forward and burst into the principal building, and as soon as he had entered he commanded the windows which were around it to be filled up with the transparent pebbles very much resembling white crystal which do not hinder the light, but which keep out the wind and the heat of the sun. Then proceeding on deliberately he asked in a more moderate tone, " What are you saying?" And when we began to connect our reply with what we had said before, he again ran on and went into another house, in which he had commanded some ancient and admirable pictures to be placed.

But when our pleadings on behalf of justice were thus broken up, and cut short, and interrupted, and crushed as ono may almost say, we, being wearied and exhausted, and having no strength left in us, but being in continual expect-

ation of nothing else than death, could no longer keep our hearts as they had been, but in our agony we took refuge in supplications to the one true God, praying him to check the wrath of this falsely called god. And he took compassion on us, and turned his mind to pity. And he becoming pacified merely said, " These men do not appear to me to be wicked so much as unfortunate and foolish, in not believing that I have been endowed with the nature of God ; " and so he dismissed us, and commanded us to depart.

XLVI. Having then escaped from what was rather a theatre and a prison than a court of justice (for as in a theatre, there was a great noise of people hissing, and groaning, and ridiculing us in an extravagant manner, and as in a prison, there were many blows inflicted on our bodies, and tortures, and things to agitate our whole souls by the blasphemies which those around us uttered against the Deity, and the threats which they breathed forth against ourselves, and which the emperor himself poured forth with such vehemence, being indignant with us not in behalf of any one else, for in that case he would soon have been appeased, but because of himself and his great desire to be/ declared a god, in which desire he considered that the Jews were the only people who did not acquiesce, and who were unable to subscribe to it), we at last recovered our breath, not because we had been afraid of death from a base hankering after life, since we would have cheerfully embraced death as immortality if our laws and customs could have been established by such means, but because we knew that we should be destroyed with great ignominy, without any desirable object being secured by such means, for whatever insults ambassadors are subjected to are at all times referred to those who sent them.

It was owing to these considerations that we were able to hold up our heads for a while, but there were other circumstances which terrified us, and kept us in great perplexity and distress to hear what the emperor would decide, and what he would pronounce, and what kind of sentence he would ultimately deliver ; for he heard the general tenor of our arguments, though he disdained to attend to some of our facts. But would it not be a terrible thing for the interests of all the Jews throughout the whole world to be thrown

ISO PHILO JUD^EUS.

into confusion by the treatment to which we, its five embassadors, were exposed ? For if he were to give us up to our enemies, what other city could enjoy tranquillity ? "What city would there be in which the citizens would not attack the Jews living in it? "What synagogue would be left uninjured ? "What state would not overturn every principle of justice in respect of those of their countrymen who arrayed themselves in opposition to the national laws and customs of the Jews ? They will be overthrown, they will be shipwrecked, they will be sent to the bottom, with all the particular laws of the nation, and those too which are common to all and in accordance with the principles of justice recognized in every eity.

"We, then, being overwhelmed with affliction, in our misery perplexed ourselves with such reasonings as these; for even those who up to this time had seemed to co-operate with us were now wearied of taking our part. Therefore, when we called them forth, they being within, did not remain, but came forth privily in fear, knowing well the desire which the emperor had to be looked upon as God.

"We have now related in a concise and summary manner the cause of the hatred of Caius to the whole nation of the Jews ; we must now proceed to make our palinode to Caius.

CONCERNING THE WORLD.

I. Theeb is no existing thing equal in honour to God, but he is the one Ruler, and Governor, and King, to whom alone it is lawful to govern and regulate everything ; for the

verse —

" A multitude of masters is not good, Let there one sovereign be, one king of all," f

is not more appropriate to be said with respect to cities and men than to the world and God, for it follows inevitably

It will be seen that a great part of this treatise is identical, word for word, with that on the Incorruptibility of the World.

that there must be one Creator and Master of one world ; and this position having been laid down and conceded as a preliminary, it is only consistent with sense to connect with it what follows from it of necessity. Let us now, therefore, consider what inferences these are.

God being one being, has two supreme powers of the greatest importance. By means of these powers the incorporeal world, appreciable only by the intellect, wa3 put together, which is the archetypal model of this world which is visible to us, being formed in such a manner as to be perceptible to our invisible conceptions just as the other is to our eyes. Therefore some persons, marvelling at the nature of both these worlds, have not only worshipped them in their entirety as gods, but have also deified the most beautiful parts of them, I mean for instance the sun, and the moon, and the whole heaven, which, without any fear or reverence, they called gods. And Moses, perceiving the ideas which they entertained, says, " O Lord, King of all gods,"* in order to point out the great superiority of the Ruler to his subjects.

And the original founder of the Jewish nation was a Chaldean by birth, being the son of a father who was much devoted to the study of astronomy, and being among people who were great studiers of mathematical science, who think the stars, and the whole heaven, and the whole world gods ; and they say that both good and evil result from their speculations and belief, since they do not believe in anything as a cause which is apart from those things which are visible to the outward senses.

But what can be worse than this, or more calculated to display the want of true nobility existing in the soul, than the notion of causes in general being secondary and created causes, combined with an ignorance of the one first cause, the uncreated God, the Creator of the universe, who for these and innumerable other reasons is most excellent, reasons which because of their magnitude human intellect is unable to apprehend ? but this founder of the Jewish nation having conceived an idea of him in his mind, and looking upon him as the true 'God, forsook his native country and his family, and his father's house, knowing that if he * Deuteronomy x. 17.

remained, the deceits of the polytheistic doctrine also remaining in his soul would render his intellect incapable of discovering the nature of the one God, who is alone everlasting, and the father of everything else, whether appreciable only by the intellect or perceptible to the outward senses ; but if he departed and emigrated, then he saw that deceit would also depart from his mind, which would then change its erroneous opinions into truth. And at the same time the oracular commands of God, which had been given to him, did further excite the desire which he felt to become acquainted with the living God. And he went forth like a man under the immediate guidance of others, with the most unhesitating promptness, to search after the knowledge of the one God ; and he did not relax in his search till he had arrived at a more accurate and correct perception, not indeed of his essences (for that is impossible), but of his existence and of his providence ; on which account he is the first man of whom it is said that he believed in God, since he was the first who had an accurate and positive notion of him, believing that there is one supreme cause of all things, which by his providence takes care of the world and of all things that are therein.

Since the Creator of the world bringing an essence previously without any order and in complete confusion, into distinct order and regularity, began to arrange and adorn the earth and the water, and established them in the middle of the world, and the trees, and air, and fire he drew up from the middle to the higher regions, and he fixed the regions of the aether all around, placing it as a boundary to and a preserver of the things which were inside, from which also it derived its name of heaven.* And these things, then, were the perfect seeds of the whole universe, but the great and all productive tree raised from this seed is this world, of which the aforesaid branches are the offshoots.

II. Where, then, God placed the roots, and what foundation it has upon which it is so firmly fixed like a statue, we must now consider. It is not natural that any body which is left behind should wander out of its limits, since God has made and arranged in its proper place, the materials of the

"OpoQ is the Greek word for boundary, from which Philo thinka that ovpavuQ, " heaven," is derived.

whole universe. For it was fitting that the greatest of all works, being also the most perfect, should be created by the greatest of all workmen. And it would not have been completely perfect if it had not been completed in perfect parts. So that if this world consists of every kind of materia!, nothing being beyond, and not even the most insignificant thing being omitted, it follows of necessity that whatever is outside the world must either be vacuum or nothing at all. If it be a vacuum, then how can it be found to balance the world, which is full and closely packed, and the heaviest of all things, when there is nothing solid to support it ? from which consideration it would appear to resemble a vision. Since the mind is always looking for a corporeal basis, it is natural to suppose that one whole should have such a thing if it happens to be put in motion, and the world above all things, inasmuch as it is the greatest of bodies, and as it embraces in its bosom a multitude of other bodies as its own appropriate parts. Therefore, if any one wishes to escape the perplexities which arise in treating of doubtful matters, let him speak his mind freely, and affirm that there is no material so strong as to be able to support the weight of the world. But the eternal law of the everlasting Grod is the strong and lasting support of the universe. This law being extended from the centre of the world to its furthest extremities, and again back from its extremities to the centre, moves on in the unwearied irresistible course of nature, uniting and binding together all the parts of the universe. For the Father who established it made it to be the indissoluble bond of the universe.

Therefore we are naturally led to conclude that the whole earth will not be dissolved by water, which its bosoms contain ; nor again will fire be extinguished by the air, nor again will the air be burnt up and consumed by fire, since the divine law has placed itself as a boundary to keep all these elements distinct from one another. As yet the allproductive plant was not rooted, and had not the power which was to be derived from being rooted. But of the subordinate, particular, and less important plants, some were moveable in such a way as easily to change their places, and some, without being liable to any change of places, were

]34 PHILO JUCEUS.

made as if they were to stand for ever in the same position. Those therefore which are exposed to a motion which involves a change of place, which we call animals, were added to the most entire and perfect parts of the universe. The earth receiving the terrestrial animals, the water the aquatic animals; the air those creatures which fly; and the stars being assigned to the heaven.

III. But the Creator created two different kinds both in the earth, and in the water, and in the air. In the air he placed those animals which fly, and other powers also which cannot by any means, or on any occasion, be comprehended by the outward senses. Thus the company of incorporeal souls is arranged in regular order according to their nature. For it is said that some of them are separated off and assigned to mortal bodies, and that, at certain definite and predetermined periods, they again depart from them. But that others of a more divine nature are utterly regardless of any situation on earth, but are raised to a great height, and placed in the aether itself, being of the purest possible character, which those among the Greeks who have studied philosophy call heroes and dsemones, and which Moses, giving them a most felicitous appellation, calls angels, acting as they do the part of ambassadors and messengers, announcing to the subjects all kinds of blessings from their rulers, and acting as servants to the king to whom they are subject ; and they, descending into the body as into a river, at one time are carried away by the violence of a most irresistible current and swallowed up, and at other times, being wholly unable to resist the powers of destruction, at first, indeed, raise their heads above the flood, and afterwards sink down again to the place from whence they have started.

These, then, are the souls of those who devote themselves to the vigorous study of philosophy respecting divine subjects, from the beginning to the end of their existence studying things which may concern them after the life has left the body, that thus they may enjoy an incorporeal and endless life in the presence of the uncreated and immortal God. But those souls of other men which I have spoken of as being overwhelmed, being such as have disregarded wisdom, giving themselves up to uncertain circum-

stances, such as depend wholly on chance, of which none have any reference to the soul or to the intellect, hut all to the body, which is but a corpse to which we are joined, or to other things even more inanimate and insensible than that ; I mean such things as glory, and riches, and power, and honour, and all such other things as through the deceitfulness of false opinions are looked upon as real and living objects by people who do not see what is really beautiful.

Therefore, if you look upon souls, and dsemones, and angels, as things differing indeed in name, but as meaning in reality one and the same thing, you will thus get rid of the heaviest of all evils, superstition. For as people in general speak of good daemones and bad dsemones, in the same manner also do they speak of good and bad souls ; and so they speak of some angels as being by their title worthy ambassadors from men to God, and from God to men, being sacred and inviolable guardians on account of their blameless and most excellent service which they have allotted to them. And, again, if you look upon others as unholy and unworthy of any such appellation, you will not err. And the Psalmist himself is a witness in favour of what I have here asserted, where he speaks as follows : " He sent among them the anger of his wrath, by the operation of evil angels."

Again, all animals that swim and zoophytes are allotted to the water, and all terrestrial animals and plants to the land. And the plants he placed with their heads downwards, fixing their heads in the deepest parts of the earth ; but the heads of the irrational animals he dragged up from the earth and placed upon a lofty neck, placing the fore -feet beneath them as a kind of pedestal. But man has had a separate formation of a higher character ; for in the case of other animals, God has placed their eyes in the side of their heads and Dent them down to the ground, on which account they are all inclined downwards to the earth. But the eyes of man, on the other hand, he has raised up, that he might behold the heavens, being not a terrestrial but a celestial plant, as the old saying is.f

Psalm Ixxvii. 49.

t This is in accordance with the idea of Ovid, who says —

Pronaque duin spectant auimalia eaetera terrain,

But the other class, who affirm that our intellect is a portion of ethereal nature, connect man in a relationship with the air. Accordingly, the great Moses has not spoken of the rational soul as it resembled in its species any created thing, but he has called it the image of the divine and invisible°God, looking upon it to be a glorious and carefully wrought image, the seal of God, the character of which is the everlasting Word ; for, says he, " God breathed into his face the breath of life."* So that it follows inevitably that he who received it must be made in the image and likeness of him who sent it. On which account he also says that man was created in the image of God, and not in the likeness of any created thing.

IV. But, taking up our discourse again at the beginning for the sake of clearness, let us say that of bodies some have put on habit, and others nature, and others soul, and others a rational soul. Therefore those stocks and stones which are torn from any intimate connection, have made for themselves that strongest of all forms, namely habit, and that is a breath returning constantly to itself ; for it begins at the centre and extends to the furthest extremities', and when it has touched the outermost circumference it turns back again until it arrives at the same place from which it originally started. This is the continued course of habit over which it runs and returns. And he has allotted a nature of their own to plants, having combined it of many powers, especially the nutritious and the generative power. And the Creator has made the soul different from nature in three particulars — the outward sense, and fancy ,( and impulse. Now plants have no participation in any of these things, but every living animal has a share in all of them. Therefore the outward sense, as its very name in my opinion shows, is a certain imposition which represents to

Os homini sublime dedit, csolumque tueri Jussit et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus. Which may be translated —

"And while all other creatures from their birth, With downcast eyes gaze on their kindred earth, Man walks erect, and proudly scans the heaven From -which he sprung, to which his hopes are given."

the intellect the things which haveappeared to it. And it represents to the fancy a sort of outline in the soul, being, as it were, a kind of representation of light ; for those things which each of the outward senses has introduced, like a ring as it were or a seal, it impresses on them its own character, or else it preserves the impression which has been made until the rival of memory, forgetfulness, having softened the impression, at least makes it very dim, or else entirely effaces it ; and what has appeared to have been impressed upon it disposes the soul at one time as if it belonged to it, and at another time as if it belonged to some other : and this feeling is called impulse, which those who have attempted to give accurate definitions have called the primary motion of the soul.

V. In such important particulars are animals superior to plants. Let us now therefore see in what man is superior to the other animals. He now has received as an especial and pre-eminent honour, the gift of intellect, by which he is accustomed to comprehend the natures of all things, whether they be bodies or things ; for as the predominant part in the body is the sight, and as the nature of light is the most important part of the universe, so in the same manner the most important and influential of all the parts in us is the mind ; for this is the light of the soul, being irradiated and enlightened by its own beams, by which that dense and profound darkness, ignorance of facts which was shed around it, is dissipated.

And this portion of the soul is not composed of the same elements as those of which the other parts are made, but it has a pure and more excellent essence, from which the divine natures were made ; on which account the intellect alone, of all the parts within us, appears very reasonably and naturally to be imperishable, for that is the only portion which the Father who generated it has thought worthy of freedom, and loosing the bands of necessity, he has allowed it to roam at large without restraint, having endowed it with a share of his own most glorious and becoming attribute, free-will, the highest present which it was able to receive. For the other animals in whose souls there does not exist that intellect which is thus especially appropriated to freedom, have been given up to men to submit to their yoke

1S8 PHILO JUD^EUS.

and to receive their bridle in their mouths, so as to serve them as servants obey their masters.

But man having a spontaneous will, subject to no promptings but those of his own nature, and exerting his energies in accordance with his own deliberate purpose, is very properly subject to blame for whatever unjust actions he commits from deliberate intention, and to praise for all the good deeds which he intentionally performs ; for as he has received from God a power of voluntary motion, and as he is in this respect like unto God himself, being delivered from all subservience to that most severe and grievous mistress, necessity, he very properly is open to accusation when he does not pay worship to that being who has thus delivered him. Therefore he will most justly in such a case suffer the punishment which has been inexorably pronounced against ungrateful people who do not deserve freedom. On which account also, the body being raised up towards the purest portion of the universe, the heaven, raises its eyes upwards, that so by an observation of what is visible, it may arrive at an adequate comprehension of what is invisible.

Since, therefore, it would be impossible to behold the attraction of the intellect towards the living God, excepting as far as those who are attracted towards him can themselves perceive it, for each man in an individual and especial degree knows what happens to himself, he has made a visible image of the invisible eye, namely, the eyes of the body which are thus able to look towards the sky. For when the eyes, which are made of perishable materials, have gone to such heights as even to soar upwards to the heaven which is removed to such an immense ^distance from the regions of the earth, and to touch its borders, to how great a distance must we not suppose that the eyes of the soul can reach ? which, being excited by a vehement desire to see the one Being clearly and distinctly, stretch forward not only to the furthest extremity of the sky, but, leaving beneath them the boundaries of the universal world, hasten onwards to the uncreated.

VI. Having now, therefore, gone through the whole question of the more important plants in the world, let us nee in what manner also the all-wise God has fashioned the

trees which exist in man, that lesser world. Therefore immediately having taken our body as a region of fertile soil, he has made in it the outward senses as so many channels ; and then he has carefully trained each of those outward senses as a plant susceptible of cultivation and of the greatest use, implanting the sense of hearing in the ears, and that of seeing in the eyes, and that of smell in the nostrils, and all the other senses in the places akin to and appropriate to them. And I have a witness in favour of this my argument in that god-like man who speaks thus in the Psalms : " He that planted the ear, shall he not hear ? and he that fashioned the eye, must not he see ?

Moreover, those other faculties which reside apart from the main body, being situated in the legs and hands and the other parts of the body, whether within or without, all these faculties, I say, are noble and excellent offshoots. And the more excellent and more perfect parts he very appropriately stationed near the dominant portion of the whole, as being in the centre, and able pre-eminently to bring forth fruit, as being the lord of the whole. And these faculties are perception and comprehension, and felicity of conjecture, and study, and recollection, and habit, and disposition, and every variety of art, and certainty of knowledge, and an ever-mindful apprehension of the speculations of every kind of virtue. Now, no one can properly or sufficiently cultivate any one of these within, but the one uncreated Maker of them, and who has not merely created them, but who also makes all these plants to correspond to everything which takes place ; he alone can manage them and perfect them as they should be perfected.

VII. And the way in which Paradise was planted is in strict conformity with what has been here said ; for we read that " God planted a Paradise in Eden, towards the east, and there he placed the man whom he had made."t Now, to think that this means that God planted vines and olives, and trees of apples and pomegranates, and things of that kind, is great and incurable folly. But in order that no one might imagine that the Creator had need of anything that he had created, Moses has made a most important declaration when he says, " The Lord, the King of ages, for ever * Psalm xciiL 9. f Ger.esia ii. S.

and ever."* Accordingly, God is both the Father, and the Creator, and the Governor, in reality and truth, of all the things that are in heaven and in the whole world. And, indeed, the future is concealed and separated from the present moment at one time by a brief, and at another time by a long interval. But God is also the Creator of time, for he is the Father of that which is the father of time ; and the father of time is the world, which proves that its own birth is the motion of time. But nothing is future to God, because he is in possession of and the author of the boundaries of time ; for it is not time, but rather the archetype and model of time. But in eternity nothing is passed, nothing is future, but everything is at the present moment.

VIII. Having now, then, discussed these matters at sufficient length, we must proceed to investigate its imperishableness. Now, there are three opinions in vogue among the philosophers on this subject : some affirming it is everlasting, and uncreated, and free from all liability to destruction ; others, on the contrary, that it is created and perishable. There is also a sect which has adopted some portions of the doctrine of each of the beforementioned parties, taking from the latter sect the doctrine that it is created, and from the former the idea that it is imperishable ; and thus they have left a mixed opinion, looking upon it as at the same time created and yet imperishable.

Therefore Democritus, and Epicurus, and the chief body of the philosophers of the Stoic school, leave the generation and also the destructibility of the world ; but they do not all do so in the same manner. For some give a sketch of many worlds, the creation of which they attribute to the concourse and conflicting combination of atoms, and their destruction they attribute to the repercussion and shattering of what has been thus formed. But the Stoics affirm that there is one world, and that God is the cause of its creation, but that God is not the cause of its destruction ; but that the power which is contained in existing things, in the long periods of never-ending time, attracts everything to itself, from which again a regeneration of the world is caused by the prudence of the Creator.

But Aristotle pronounced the world to be both uncreated

ON THE WORLD. ]9l

and imperishable, and he affirmed that those who maintained a contrary doctrine were guilty of terrible impiety, as they considered that so great a work of God was in no respect superior to things made by the hand of men. And they say too that it has been proved to be both uncreated and imperishable by Plato in his Timaeus.

But some persons interpret Plato's words sophistically, and think that he affirms that the world was created, not inasmuch as it has had a beginning of creation, but inasmuch as if it had been created it could not possibly have existed in any other manner than that in which it actually does exist as has been described, or else because it is in its creation and change that the parts are seen. But the forementioned opinion i3 better and truer, not only because throughout the whole treatise he affirms that the Creator of the gods is also the father and creator and maker of everything, and that the world is a most beautiful work of his and his offspring, being an imitation visible to the outward senses of an archetypal model appreciable only by the intellect, comprehending in itself as many objects of the outward senses as the model does objects of the intellect, since it is a most perfect impression of a most perfect model, and is addressed to the outward sense as the other is to tbe intellect.

But also because Aristotle bears witness to this fact in the case of Plato, who, from his great reverence for philosophy, would never have spoken falsely.

But some persons think that the father of the Platonic theory was the poet Hesiod, as they conceive that the world is spoken of by him as created and indestructible ; as created, when he says, —

"First did Chaos rule; Then the broad-chested earth was brought to light, Foundation firm and lasting for whatever Exists among mankind ;""

and as'indestructible, because he has given no hint of its dissolution or destruction.

Now Chaos was conceived by Aristotle to be a place, because it is absolutely necessary that a place to receive them must be in existence before bodies. But some of the Stoics think that

Hesiod, Theogon. 116.

192 THILO JUDiEUS.

it is water, imagining that its name has been derived from effusion.* But however that may be, it is exceedingly plain that the world is spoken of by Hesiod as having been created : and a very long time before him Moses, the lawgiver of the Jews, had said in his sacred volumes that the worldjwas both created and indestructible, and the number of the books is five. The first of which he entitled Genesis, in which he begins in the following manner : " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth ; and the earth was invisible and without form."

IX. But we must place those arguments first which make out the world to be uncreated and indestructible, because of our respect for that which is visible, employing an appropriate commencement. To all things which are liable to destruction there are two causes of that destruction, one being internal and the other external ; therefore you may find iron, and brass, and all other substances of that kind destroyed by themselves when rust, like a creeping disease, overruns and devours them ; and by external causes when, if a house or a city is burnt, they also are consumed in the conflagration, being melted by the violent impetuosity of the fire.

And if the world also is destroyed, then it must of necessity be so either by some external cause, or else by some one of the powers which exist within itself; and both these alternatives are impossible, for there is nothing whatever outside of the world, since all things are brought together in order to make it complete and full, for it is in this way that it will be one, and whole, and free from old age ; it will be one, because if anything were left outside of it, then anotber world might be created resembling tbat which exists now ; and whole, because the whole of its essence is expended on itself ; and exempt from old age and from all disease, since those bodies which are liable to be destroyed by disease or old age are violently overthrown by external causes, such as heat, and cold, and other contrary qualities, no power of which is able to escape so as to surround and attack the world, all those being * Xi'o-ic, as if chaos were derived from x<w, " to pour."

entirely enclosed within, without any part whatever being separated from the rest.

But if indeed there is any external thing it must by all means be a vacuum, or else a nature absolutely impossible, which it would be impossible should either suffer or do anything. And again, it will also not be dissolved by any cause existing within itself; first of all because, if it were, then the part would be greater and more powerful than the whole, which is the greatest possible absurdity, for the world, enjoying an unsurpassable power, influences all its parts, and is not itself influenced or moved by any one of them ; in the second place because, since there are two causes of corruption, the one being internal and the other external, those things which are competent to admit the one must also by all means be liable to the other ; and a proof of this may be found in oxen, and horses, and men, and other animals of similar kinds, because it is their nature to be destroyed by the sword, or to be liable to die by disease.

X. Since, therefore, the arrangement of the world is such as I have endeavoured to describe it, so that there is no part whatever left out, so as for any force to be applied, it has now been proved that the world will not be destroyed by any external thing, because in fact nothing whatever external has been left at all ; nor will it be destroyed by anything in itself on account of the proof which has already been considered and stated, according to which that which was obnoxious to the power of one of those causes was also naturally susceptible of the influence of the other.

And there are testimonies also in the Timseus to the fact of the world being exempt from disease and not liable to destruction, such as these : " Accordingly, of the four elements the constitution of the world receives each in all its integrity ; for he who compounded it made it to consist of the whole of fire, and the whole of water, and the whole of air, and the whole of earth, not leaving any portion or any power of any one of them outside, from the following intentions : — in the first place, in order that the whole might be as far as possible a perfect animal made up of perfect parts. And besides all these things, he ordained that it should be one, inasmuch as there is nothing left out of which another similar world could be composed. Moreover, he willed that it should

VOL. IV. O

194 PHILO JTTD.EUS.

be exempt from old age, and free from all disease, considering that those things which in the body are hot or cold, or which have mighty powers, if standing all around and falling upon it unseasonably, would be likely to dissolve it, and, by introducing diseases and old age, cause it to decay and perish. For this cause, and because of this reason, God made the whole universe to consist of entire and perfect elements, and exempt from old age and free from disease."

XI. Let this be taken as a testimony delivered by Plato to the imperishable nature of the world. Its uncreated character follows from the truth of natural philosophy ; for dissolution must of necessity attend everything which is born, and incorruptibility must inevitably belong to everything which is unborn ; since the poet who wrote the following iambic verse,

" All that is born must surely die,"

appears to have spoken very correctly when he asserted this connection of destructibility with birth.

The argument may be stated in a different way as follows. All compound things which are destroyed are dissolved into the elements of which they were compounded ; accordingly, dissolution is nothing else but a return of everything to its original constituent parts ; just as, on the contrary, composition is that which compels the things combined to come together in a manner contrary to their nature ; and indeed, this appears to be the most exact truth ; for men are composed of the four elements which together make up the whole of the universe, the heaven, the earth, the air, and fire, borrowing a few parts of each in a manner at first sight hardly consistent with nature. But the things which are thus combined together are necessarily deprived of a motion in accordance with nature ; for instance, warmth is deprived of its upward motion, and coldness of its downward tendency, the earthy and somewhat weighty substance being lightened and assuming the higher place, which the most earth-like of our own parts, the head, has obtained in us. But of all bonds, that is the worst which is forged by violence, and which, being violent, is also shortlived ; for it is speedily broken by those who are bound in it, since they become restive from their desire for a motion in ac-

cordance with nature, to which they hasten ; for as the tragic poet says,* —

" And for things sprung from earth, they must Return unto their parent dust, While those from heavenly seed which rise Are borne uplifted to the skies. Though often what has been combined

And this law and ordinance is established with reference to everything which is destroyed, that wherever composite things are existing in combination they are thrown into disorder instead of into the order in accordance with nature, which they previously enjoyed, and they are removed to situations opposite to those in which they were previously placed, so that they seem in a manner to be sojourners ; and when they are dissolved again, then they return to the appropriate parts allotted to them by nature.

But since the world has no participation in that irregularity which exists in the things which I have just been mentioning, let us stop awhile and consider this point.

19G PHILO JUD.EUS.

between air and fire, and fire having received the highest place of all : on which account, if you light a torch and press it down towards the ground, nevertheless the flame will still turn in a contrary direction, and lightening itself in accordance with the natural motion of fire, will rise upwards : if, then, motion contrary to nature is the cause of corruptibility and destruction in the case of other animals, but if in the case of the world every one of its parts is arranged in complete accordance with nature, having had appropriate positions allotted to each of them, then surely the world must most justly be pronounced incorruptible and imperishable.

XII. Moreover this point is manifest to every one, that every nature is desirous to keep and preserve, and if it were possible to make immortal, everything of which it is the nature ; the nature of trees, for instance, desires to preserve trees, and the nature of animals desires to preserve each individual animal. But particular nature is of necessity unable to conduct what it belongs to to eternity ; for want, or heat, or cold, or innumerable other ordinary circumstances, when they affect particular things, shake them and dissolve the bond which previously held them together, and at last break them to pieces ; but if nothing resembling any of these things were lying in wait outside, then in that case nature itself, as far as it is possible, would preserve everything both great and small free from old age.

" High over all she lifts her beauteous face, And towers above her nymphs with heavenly grace, Fair as they all appear."

Homer, Odyssey vi. 107, where the lines quoted are applied to Latona among her nymphs.

has well said :* — " For nothing ever departed from it, nor did anything ever come to it from any quarter ; for that was not possible ; for there was nothing in existence which could come ; for since it supplies itself with nutriment out of its own consumption, it also does everything and suffers everything in itself and by itself, and is compounded with the most consummate art. For he who created it thought that it would be better if wholly self-sufficient, than if in continual need of accessories from other quarters."

XIII. However, this argument also is a most demonstrative one, on which I know that vast numbers of philosophers pride themselves as one most accurately worked out, and altogether irresistible ; for they inquire what reason there is for God's destroying the world. For. if he destroys it at all he must do so either with the intention of never making a world again, or with the object of creating a second fresh one ; now the former idea is inconsistent with the character of God; for it is proper to change disorder into order, and not order into disorder : in the second place, it is so because it would give rise to repentance, which is an affliction and a disease of the soul.

For he ought either never to have created a world at all,

or else, if he judged that it was a fitting employment for him,

he ought to have been pleased with it after it was made. But

the second reason deserves no superficial examination ; for if

he were intending to make another world instead of that which

exists at present, then of necessity this second world that

would be made, in that case, would be either worse than, or

similar to. or better than the first ; everyone of which ideas is

inadmissible ; for if the new world is to be worse than the

former, then the maker must be also worse: but all the works

of God are without blemish, beyond all reproach and wholly

faultless, inasmuch as they are wrought with the most consum

mate skill and knowledge ; for as the proverb says ; —

" For e'en a woman's wisdom's not so coarse As to despise the good and choose the worse."

But it is consistent with the character of, and becoming to God to give form to what is shapeless, and to invest what is most ugly with admirable beauty.

Again, if the new world is to be exactly like the old one,

then the maker is only wasting his labour, and differs in no respect from infant children who, very often while playing on the sea shore raise up little mounds of sand, and then pull them down again with their hands and destroy them ; for it would have been much better than making another world exactly like the former, neither to take anything from, nor to add anything to, nor to change either for the better or for the worse, what existed originally, but to let it remain just as it was.

If, on the other hand, he is about to make a world better than the former one, then the maker too must be better than the maker of the former world, so that when he made the former world he was inferior both in his skill and in his intellect, which it is impious even to imagine, for God is at all times equal and similar to himself, being neither capable of any relaxation which can make him worse, nor of any extension which can make him better. Men, indeed, do admit of such inequalities in either direction, being naturally liable to alter either for the better or for the worse, and continually admitting of increase, and advance, and improvement, and everything contrary to these states ; and besides this, the works of us who are but mortal men may very appropriately be perishable, but the works of the immortal must in all consistency and reason be likewise imperishable, for it is natural that what is made should resemble the nature of the maker.

XIV. But Boethus adduces the most convincing arguments, which we shall proceed to mention immediately ; for if. says he, the world was created and is liable to destruction, then something will be made out of nothing, which appears to be most absurd even to the Stoics. Why so? Because it is not possible to discover any cause of destruction either within or without, which will destroy the world. For on the outside there is nothing except perhaps a vacuum, inasmuch as all the elements in their integrity are collected and contained within it, and within there is no imperfection so great as to be the cause of dissolution to so great a thing.

division, another which proceeds from a destruction of the distinctive quality which holds the thing together, and the third from confusion ; therefore the things which consist of a union of separate members, such as flocks of goats, herds of oxen, choruses, armies ; or, again, bodies which are compounded of limbs joined together, are dissolved by disjunction and separation. But wax, when stamped with a new impression, or softened before being remodelled so as to present a new and different appearance, is corrupted by a destruction of the distinctive quality which previously held it together. Other things are corrupted by confusion, as the medicine which the physicians call tetrapharmacon, for the powers of the drugs brought together and combined were destroyed in such a manner as to produce one perfect medicine of especial virtue.

Is it then destroyed by a complete destruction of its distinctive qualities ? This again is impossible, for there remains, as the adversaries affirm, a quality of arrangement which by the process of conflagi'ation is only diminished to a lesser substance ... Is it destroyed then by confusion ? Away with such an idea, for in that case it would be necessary to confess that the corruption of a body can be reduced to a state of non-existence. Why so ? Because if each of the particular elements were destroyed separately, it would be possible for it to become changed into another ; but if they are altogether destroyed at one and the same moment by confusion, then it would be necessary to imagine what is absolutely impossible.

XV. Is it not however worth while to examine this question, in what manner there can be a regeneration of all those things which have been destroyed by fire, and resolved into fire ? for when their substance has been wholly destroyed by the fire, it

follows of necessity that the fire itself must also be extinguished as no longer having any nourishment. Therefore, as long as it remained the seminal principle of arrangement was likewise preserved, but when it is destroyed that principle is destroyed with it. But it would be impious, and an impiety of double dye, not only to attribute destruction to the world, but also to take away the possibility of its regeneration; as if God delighted in disorder, and irregularity, and all kinds of evil things. But we must examine this question more accurately, in the following manner.

There are three species in fire ; the coal, and the flame, and the light. Now coal is the fire in its earthy substance, which, like a sort of spiritual habit, couches and lies hid in a sort of cavern, pervading it all to its very extremities. And the flame is that part which, being raised on high, is lifted up from its fuel. And the light is that which is emitted from the flame, so as to co-operate with the eyes, in order to enable them to comprehend what is seen. And the flame occupies the middle position between the coal and the light ; for when it is extinguished it ends in coal, and when it is kindled it excites the light, which, being deprived of its burning power, blazes. If therefore, we affirm that the world is dissolved by conflagration, it would not be coal, because, in that case there will be a great deal of the earthy substance left behind, in which also fire must necessarily be contained. But we must agree, that none of the other bodies subsist any longer, but that earth, and water, and air, are all dissolved into unmixed fire. Nor, again, would it become flame ; for that can only exist in connexion with nourishment ; and, if nothing is left behind, being deprived of all nourishment it will immediately be extinguished. It follows from all this, that it cannot become light either ; for light by itself has no substance at all, but flows from the things before mentioned, coal aud flame, not in a great degree from the coal, but very much from the flame ; for it is diffused over a very great space indeed. But if, as has been already proved, those things had no existence from the conflagration of all things, then there could not be any light either. So that it is impossible for the world to be susceptible of any regeneration, inasmuch as there is no spermatic principle smouldering beneath ; from which consideration it is plain that it is uncreated, and that it will be for ever imperishable.

XVI. However, besides what has been here said, any one may use this argument also in corroboration of his opinion, which will certainly convince all those who are not determined to be obstinate beyond all bounds ; of those things which in pairs are exactly contrary to one another it is impossible that one thing should be, and that the other should not be ; for since there is white it follows as a matter of absolute necessity that there must also be black, and since there is a great there must likewise be a little ; since there is an odd there must inevitably be an even ; since there is a sweet there must be a bitter ; since there is day there must be night ; and so on in an infinite number of similar cases ; but if a conflagration should take place, then something would ensue which is impossible ; for then, of things in a pair, the one will happen and the other will not.

regularity, and life, and of every good thing, as is confessed by all those whose opinions are based on truth.

XVII. But some of those persons who have fancied that the world is everlasting, inventing a variety of new arguments, employ also such a system of reasoning as this to establish their point : they affirm that there are four principal manners in which corruption is brought about, addition, taking away, transposition, and alteration ; accordingly, the number two is by the addition of the unit corrupted so as to become the number three, and no longer remains the number two ; and the number four by the taking away of the unit is corrupted so as to become the number three ; again, by transposition the letter Z becomes the letter H when the parallel lines which were previously horizontal ^ are placed perpendicularly TI, and when the line which did before pass upwards I, so as to connect the two is now made horizontal, and still extended between them so as to join them. And by alteration the word ohog, nine, becomes ogog, vinegar.

But of the manner of corruption thus mentioned there is not one which is in the least degree whatever applicable to the world, since otherwise what could we say? Could we affirm that anything is added to the world so as to cause its destruction ? But there is nothing whatever outside of the world which is not a portion of it as the whole, for everything is surrounded, and contained, and mastered by it. Again, can we say that anything is taken from the world so as to have that effect ? In the first place that which would be taken away would again be a world of smaller dimensions than the existing one, and in the second place it is impossible that any body could be separated from the composite fabric of the whole world so as to be completely dispersed. Again, are we to say that the constituent parts of the world are transposed ? But at all events they remain in their original positions without any change of place, for never at any time shall the whole earth be raised up above the water, nor the water above the air, nor the air above the fire. But those things which are by nature heavy, namely the earth and the water, will have the middle place, the earth supporting everything like a solid foundation, and the water being above it ; and the air and the fire, which are by nature light, will have the higher position, but not equally, for the air is the vehicle of the fire ; and that

which is carried by anything is of necessity above that which carries it.

Once more : we must not imagine that the world is destroyed by alteration, for tbe change of any elements is equipollent, and that which is equipollent is the cause of unvarying steadiness, and of untroubled durability, inasmuch as it neither seeks any advantage itself, and is not subject to the inroads of other things which seek advantages at its expense ; so that this retribution and compensation of these powers is equalized by the rules of proportion, being the produce of health and endless preservation, by all which considerations the world is demonstrated to be eternal.

XVIII. Theophrastus, moreover, says that those men who attribute a beginning and destructibility to the world are deceived by four particulars of the greatest importance, the inequalities of the earth, the retreat of the sea, the dissolution of each of the parts of the universe, and the destruction of different terrestrial animals in their kinds ; and he proceeds to establish the first point thus : if the earth had never had any beginning of its creation, then there would have been no portion of it rising above the rest so as to be conspicuous, but all the mountains would have been level, and all the pieces of rising ground would have been even with the plain.

For otherwise, as I have said before, all the earth would long since have been rendered level from one extremity to the other by the vast rains which would have fallen from the eternal commencement of time ; for it is the character of the nature of water, and especially of such as descends in a heavy fall from lofty places, to push some things away by force, and to cut out and hollow other places by its continual dropping, and in this manner to operate on the hard, rugged, stony ground not less than men digging. And again, the sea, as

they affirm, is already somewhat diminished, and for proof of this fact we can appeal to the most celebrated islands, Rhodes and Delos, for these were in ancient times invisible, being overwhelmed by and sunk under the sea, but by lapse of time, as the sea gradually diminished, they by slow degrees rose above it and came into sight, as the histories which are written concerning them record. And they used to call Delos Anaphe, confirming the account here given by both names, since when it appeared above the waters * it became evident, f having been formei'ly invisible and unseen.

But if the sea is gradually being diminished then the earth also will be diminished ; and in long revolutions of years every one of the elements will be entirely consumed and destroyed ; and the whole air will be consumed, being diminished by little and little ; and all things will be absorbed and dissolved into the one substance of fire.

And for the purpose of establishing the third alternative of this question they use the following argument : beyond all question that thing is destroyed all the parts of which are liable to destruction ; but all the parts of the world are liable to destruction, therefore the world also is liable to destruction.

The Greek word ia dva(pavu<ra, from which 'A.%>a^i) is derived. + A»;\>7, from which A/j\oc is derived.

consequence of which they are broken up and made fluid, so that they are dissolved first of all into a thin dust, and afterwards are wholly wasted away and destroyed ? Again, if the water were never agitated by the winds, but were left immoveable for ever, would it not from inaction and tranquillity become dead ? at all events it is changed by such stagnation, and becomes very foetid and foul-smelling, like an animal deprived of life. And so also the corruptions of the air are plain to everyone, for it is the nature of the atmosphere to become sick and to decay, and, as one may say, in a manner to die ; since what else is it which a man, who is not aiming at selecting plausible language, but only at truth, would call a plague except a death of the atmosphere, which diffuses its own disease and suffering to the destruction of everything which is endowed with life '?

And why need I speak at great length concerning fire ? for if it is deprived of nourishment it is immediately extinguished.

If then, each of the separate parts of the world awaits utter destruction, it is plain that the world which is compounded of these can not be itself exempt from destruction.

We must now consider with accuracy the fourth and remaining argument. Thus they argue : if the world were eternal then the animals also would be eternal, and much more the human race, in proportion as that is more excellent than the other animals ; but, on the contrary, those who take delight in investigating the mysteries of nature consider that man has only been created in the late ages of the world ; for it is likely, or I Bhould rather say it is inevitably true, that the arts co-exist with man, so as to be exactly co-eval with him, not only because methodical proceedings are appropriate to a rational nature, but also because it is not possible to live without them ; let us therefore examine the dates of each of these, disregarding the fables invented by the tragedians about the gods ; but if man is not eternal then neither is any other animal, so that then neither are the places which receive them, the earth, or the water, or the air ; from all which considerations it is plain that this world is liable to destruction.

XIX. But it is necessary to encounter such quibbling arguments as these, lest some persons of too little experience should yield to aud be led away by them ; and we must begin our refutation of them from the same point from which the

206 PHILO JUD/EU8.

Sophists begin their deceit. They say, " There could no longer be any inequalities existing on the earth, if the world were eternal." Why not, my most excellent friends ? For other persons will come up and say that the natures of trees are in no respect different from mountains ; but just as they at certain seasons lose their leaves, and again at certain seasons recover their verdure again ; (on which account there is admirable truth in those lines of the poet : —

" Like leaves on trees the race of man is found, Now green in youth, now withering on the ground ; Another race the following spring supplies ; They fall successive and successive rise.")

And so in like manner some portions of the mountains are broken off, and others grow in their stead : but after a long lapse of time the additional growth becomes conspicuous, because the trees having a more rapid nature display their increase with great rapidity ; but mountains have a slower character, on which account it happens that the additions which take place in their case are not perceptible by the outward senses except after a long time.

And these men appear to be ignorant of the manner in which they are produced, since if they had not been, perhaps they would have been silent out of shame ; but still there is no reason why we should not teach them ; but there is nothing new in what is now said, neither are they our words but the ancient sayings of wise men, by whom nothing which was necessary for knowledge has been left uninvestigated ; when the fiery principle which is contained beneath, in the earth, is thrust upwards by the natural power of fire, it proceeds to its own appropriate place ; and if it meets with any respite or relaxation, though ever so slight, it draws up with it a large portion of the earthy substance, as much as it can ; and when it has emerged from the earth it proceeds more slowly ; but the earthy substance being compelled to follow it for a long time, being at last raised to an immense height, is contracted at the top, and at last comes to end on a sharp point imitating the general appearance of the flame of fire ; for there arises then a most violent contention between two things which are natural adversaries, the lightest and the heaviest of things, each of them pressing onwards to reach its own place, and

each striving against the violent efforts of the other ; accordingly the fire, which is drawing up the earth with it, is compelled to sink down by its descending power ; and the earth naturally inclining to the lowest point is nevertheless to a certain degree made light, and lifted up by the upward tendencies of fire, and so is raised on high, and being at last overpowered by the more influential power which lightens it is thrust upwards towards the natural seat of fire, and established on high.

XX. These things, then, may be said by us with respect to the argument that the inequalities of the surface of the earth are no proof of the world having been created and being liable to destruction ; but with respect to that argument which was endeavoured to be established by the diminution of the sea, we may reasonably adduce this statement in opposition to it : " Do not look only at the islands which have risen up out of the sea, nor at any portions of land which, having been formerly buried by the waters, have in subsequent times become dry land ; for obstinate contention is very unfavourable to the consideration of natural philosophy, which considers the search after truth to be the chief object of rational desire ; but look rather at the contrary effects : consider how many districts on the main-land, not only such as were near the coast, but even such as were completely in-land, have been swallowed up by the waters ; and consider how great a portion of land lias become sea and is now sailed over by innumerable ships." Are you ignorant of the celebrated account which is given of that most sacred Sicilian strait, which in old times joined Sicily to the continent of Italy ? and where vast seas on each side being excited by violent storms met together, coming from opposite directions, the land between them was overwhelmed and broken away; from which circumstance th.0

city built in the neighbourhood was called Rhegium,* and the result was quite different from what any oue would have expected ; for the seas which had formerly been separated now flowed together and were united in one expanse ; and the land which had previously united was now separated into two portions by the strait which intersected it, in consequence of which Sicily, which had previously formed a part of the mainland, was now compelled to be an island.

XXI. And it is said that many other cities also have disappeared, having been swallowed up by the sea which overwhelmed them ; since they speak of three in Peloponnesus —

" ^Egira and fair Bura's walls, And Helica's lofty halls, And many a once renowned town, With wreck and seaweed overgrown,"

as having been formerly prosperous, but now overwhelmed by the violent influx of the sea. And the island of Atalantes which was greater than Africa and Asia, as Plato says in the Timagus, in one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea in consequence of an extraordinary earthquake and inundation and suddenly disappeared, becoming sea, not indeed navigable, but full of gulfs and eddies. Therefore that imaginary and fictitious diminution of the sea has no connection with the destruction or durability of the world ; for in fact it appears to recede indeed from some parts, but to rise higher in others ; and it would have been proper rather not to look at only one of these results but at both together, and so to form one's opinion, since in all the disputed questions which arise in human life, a wise and honest judge will not deliver his opinion before he has heard the arguments of the advocates on both sides.

XXII. And as for the third argument, it is convicted by itself, as being derived only from an unsound system of questioning proceeding from the assertions originally made ; for in truth it does not necessarily follow that a thing, all the parts of which are liable to corruption, is likewise perishable itself ; but this is only inevitably true of that thing of which all the parts are perishable when taken collectively and together in the same place and at the same time, since in the case of a person who has the tip of his finger cut off, he is not disabled

'Fijyiov, from pijyvvpi, " to break."

from living, but if he had the whole collection of all his parte and limbs cut off at once, he would die immediately. Therefore in the same .manner, if all the elements of the world together were all to disappear at one and the same moment, then it would be necessary to admit that the world was liable to corruption and destruction; but if each of these elements separately only changes its nature so as to assimilate to that of its nature, it is then rendered immortal rather than destroyed, according to the philosophical statement of the tragic poet —

Though often what has been combine

For it is the greatest folly imaginable to estimate the antiquity of the human race from the state of art ; for if any one were to follow the absurdity of such a system of reasoning as this, he will prove the world to be very young indeed, and to have been made scarcely a thousand years, since all those men whom we have heard of traditionally as the discoverers in different branches of science do not go back to a greater number of years than that which I have mentioned.

Accordingly, when the greater part of mankind is destroyed in the manners above mentioned, besides an infinity of other ways of less power and importance, it follows of necessity that the arts also must fail, for it cannot be possible to discuss science by itself without some one to reduce it to method and

VOL. IV. P

practice. But when those common pestilences relax their fury, and when the human race begins again to recover vigour and to flourish, descending from those who have not been previously destroyed by the evils which pressed upon them, then the arts also begin again to exist, not indeed as they were at first, but in thinner numbers from the diminution of the numbers of those who practise them.

I have now then set forth to the best of my ability what I have been able to learn or to understand concerning the indestructibility of the world.

THE FRAGMENTS OF THE LOST WORKS.

From Eusebius' Prepar. of the Gospel. — Lib. viii. c. 13.

But that you may not think that I am here arguing in a sophistical manner, I will produce a man who is a Hebrew as the interpreter for you of the meaning of the scripture ; a man who inherited from his father a most accurate knowledge of his national customs and laws, and who had learnt the doctrines contained in them from learned teachers ; for such a man was Philo. Listen then, to him, and hear how he interprets the words of God.

Why, then, does he use the expression, " In the image of God I made man,"* as if he were speaking of that of some other God, and not of having made him in the likeness of himself ? This expression is used with great beauty and wisdom. For it was impossible that anything mortal should be made in the likeness of the most high God the Father of the universe ; but it could only be made in the likeness of the second God, who is the Word of the other ; for it was fitting that the rational type in the soul of man should receive the impression of the Word of God, since the God below the Word is superior to all and every rational nature ; and it is not lawful for any created thing to be made like the God who is above reason, and who is endowed with a most excellent and special form appropriated to himself alone.

This is what I wish to quote from the first book of the questions and answers of Philo.

From the same work, c. 21.

And the Hebrew Philo, in his treatise on Providence, speaks in this way concerning matter.

But concerning the quantity of the essence, if indeed it really has any existence, we must also speak. God took care at the creation of the world that there should be an ample and most sufficient supply of matter, so exact that nothing might be wanting and nothing superfluous. For it would have been absurd in the case of particular artisans, for them, when they are occupied in making anything, and especially anything of much value, to calculate the exact quantity of materials which they require ; but for that being who is the original inventor of numbers and measures, and the qualities which exist and are found in them, to omit to take care to have just what was proper. I will speak now with all freedom, and say that the world had need for its fabrication of some precise quantity of materials, neither more nor less ; since otherwise it would not have been perfect, nor complete in all its parts, being thoroughly well made, nor would it have been made perfect of a perfect essence.

For it is an indispensable part of a workman who is thoroughly well skilled in his art, before he begins making any tiling, to see that his materials are exactly sufficient; therefore a man, even if he were most eminently skilled in the knowledge of other things, still if he were not able altogether to avoid error, which is so natural to mortals, would be very likely to be deceived in respect of the quantity of materials which he required when he was about to proceed to the exercise of art ; sometimes adding to it as too little, and sometimes taking away from it as too much. But that Being who is, as it were, a kind of fountain of all knowledge, was not likely to supply anything in deficient or in superfluous quantities, inasmuch as he employs measures elaborated in a most wonderful manner, so as to display perfect accuracy, and all of the most praiseworthy character. But he who is inclined to talk nonsense, at random, will easily do it, looking upon the different works of all artisans as causes, and as having been made in a more excellent manner, either bv the addition or by

the subtraction of some material or other. But it is the peculiar occupation of sophistry to quibble and cavil ; while it is the tas"k of wisdom to investigate accurately everything that exists in nature.

And this is the way in which Philo speaks on this subject.

From the eighth book of the same author, c. 5.

And first of all I will adduce what Philo says respecting the journey of the Jews into Egypt, of which he has given an account, following that which is given by Moses in the first book of the Pentateuch, to which he has affixed the superscription, " hypothetically ; " where, arguing in behalf of the Jews as if he were addressing himself to their accusers, he speaks in the following manner, affirming, —

That their ancient ancestor, the original founder of their race, was a Chaldaean ; and that this people emigrated from Egypt, after having in former times left its abode in Syria, being very numerous and consisting of countless myriads of people ; and that when the land was no longer able to contain them, and moreover when a high spirit began to show itself in the dispositions of their young men, and when, besides this, God himself by visions and dreams began to show them that he willed that they should depart, and when, as the Deity brought it about, nothing was less an object of desire to them than their ancient native land ; on that account this ancestor of theirs departed and journeyed into Egypt, whether in consequence of some express determination of God, or whether it was in consequence of some prophetic instinct of his own ; so that from that time to the present the nation has had an existence and a durability, and has become so exceedingly populous, as it is at this moment.

And then, after a few more sentences, he says, — >

And they were led in this journey and emigration of theirs by a man who, if you will have it so, was in no respect superior to the generality of his fellow countrymen, so incessantly did they reproach him as a trickster and one who deceived them with words. An admirable amount and kind of trickery and deceit no doubt it was, by which he not only completely saved the whole people which was oppressed by want of water and hunger, and by ignorance of the way, and in a complete state of destitution of all things, and led them forward as if in all

prosperity, and conducted them through all the nations lying around, and kept them without any quarrelling with one another, and in a state of complete subordination and obedience to himself. And this too, not for a short time, but for a period of such length, that it is not likely that even a single family would continue in perfect unanimity and pi-osperity for such a time ; for no thirst, no hunger, no decay of body, no fear of the future, no ignorance of what was to befall them, ever excited that deceived people, who were being led, as some will have it, to their destruction, to rise against him who was deceiving them. Yet what would you have us say ? That he had such excessive art, or such great eloquence of speech, or such shrewdness, that he could triumph over so many difficulties of such a nature, which seemed likely to lead to the destruction of them all '? Surely you must confess, either that the natures of the men under him were not utterly ignorant or obstinate, but were obedient and not inclined to neglect a prudent care of the future ; or else that they were as wicked and perverse as possible, but that God softened their obstinacy, and was, as it were, a leader to them in respect both of the present and of the future.

For that of these alternatives which appears to you to be the truest of the two, appears equally to contribute to the praise, and honour, and admiration of the whole nation.

These things, then, are what I have to say about this exodus. But when they came into this land, how they were settled here, and how they got possession of the country, they show in their sacred records. And I moreover do not think it necessary to describe it as by wajr of history, but rather to enter into some speculations concerning them as to what was their natural and likely course. For which of these two alternatives will you embrace ? That while they were still very numerous, although at last they were evilly afflicted, still, while they were powerful and had arms in their hands, they took the country by force, fighting with and defeating both the Syrians and Phoenicians who met them in that their land ? Or shall we suppose that they were unwarlike, and destitute of manly courage, and altogether deficient in point of numbers, and destitute of any supplies for war ; but that they met with respectful treatment from those nations, and obtained their land from

214 niiLO jud.eus.

them, who willingly surrendered it to them ? and that then immediately, or at no distant period, they built a temple, and did everything else which has any bearing on religion and piety ?

For these circumstances, as it seems, would prove them to have been a God-loving people, and beloved by God, and confessed to be such even by their enemies ; for those people into whose territories they had suddenly come, as if to deprive them of them, were of necessity their enemies. And if they met with respectful treatment and honour from them, how can we deny that they surpassed all other men in good fortune ?

And what shall we say after this in the second place, or in the third place ? Shall we speak of their admirable code of laws, of their obedience, or of their devotion, and justice, and holiness, and piety? But in truth they looked upon that man, whoever he was, who gave them these laws, with such excessive admiration and veneration, that whatever he approved of they immediately thought best also. Therefore, whether he spoke, being influenced by his own reason, or because he was inspired by the Deity, they referred every word of his to God. And though many years have passed, I cannot tell the exact number, but more than two thousand, still they have never altered one word of what was written by him, but would rather endure to die ten thousand times than to do any thing in opposition to his laws and to the customs which he established.

After Philo has said this, he proceeds to give an abridgment of the constitution established in the nation of the Jews by the laws of Moses, speaking thus : —

From the same book, c. 7

Now, is there anything among that people resembling these circumstances, anything which appears to be of a mild and gentle character, and which admits of invocations of justice, and pleas, and delays, and of assessments of damages, and on the other hand of counter assessments ? Not a word, but every thing is simple, plain, and straightforward. If you indulge in illicit connexions, if you commit adultery, if you do violence to a child (for do not speak of doing so to a boy, but even to a female child) ; and in like manner, if you prostitute

yourself, if you suffer any thing disgraceful contrary to 'what becomes your age, or appear to do so, or are about to do so, death is the penalty for such wickedness.

Again, if you behave with insult towards a slave, or towards a free person, if you confine such an one in bonds, if you lead him away and sell him, if you steal any thing, whether common or sacred, if you commit acts of impiety, not only by your deeds but even by any chance word, I will not venture to say against God himself (may God be merciful to us, and of the same opinion about these matters), but against your father, or your mother, or your benefactor, death is equally the penalty. And that too, not a common, or ordinary, or natural death ; but he who has merely uttered a single impious word must be stoned, as having committed no inferior impiety.

He also gives many other injunctions, such as these, that wives shall serve their husbands, not indeed in any particular so as to be insulted by them, but in the spirit of reasonable obedience in all things ; that parents shall govern their children for their preservation and benefit ; that every one shall be the lord of his own possessions, provided he has not dedicated them to God, nor spoken of God as their owner ; but if he has vowed them only by a single word, then it is not lawful for him to lay hands upon or to touch them, but he must at once separate himself from them all. May I never be guilty of plundering the things which belong to God, or of stealing what has been offered and dedicated to him by others. And even, as I have said before, if a single word to that effect has unintentionally fallen from a man, he must, instead of taking away from what is already dedicated, add some offering of his own ; for if he has said the word, he, by so speaking, deprives himself of every thing. But if he repents, or wishes to recall and amend what he has said, he shall be deprived also of his very life. And the same principle extends to other things, of which he is the owner.

Jf a man by any words dedicates that which is requisite to support a wife, she shall be sacred and entitled to receive the support. If a father makes such a promise to his son, or a master to his servant, the rule is the same. And the way in which a man may be released from any promise or vow which he has made in such a manner can only be in the most perfect and complete way, when the high priest discharges him from

21 G PHILO JUDJEUS.

it; for he is the person entitled to receive it in due subordination to God. And the next way is that which consists in propitiating the mercy of God in behalf of those who are the more immediate owners of the thing vowed, so that he may not accept of what is thus dedicated, since it is necessary to them. There are, besides these rules, ten thousand other precepts, which refer to the unwritten customs and ordinances of the nation.

Moreover, it is ordained in the laws themselves that no one shall do to his neighbour what he would be unwilling to have done to himself.

That a man shall not take up what he has not put down, neither out of a garden, nor out of a wine-press, nor out of a threshing-floor ; aiid that absolutely no one shall take anything, whether it be great or small, out of a heap. That no one shall refuse fire to one who begs it of him.

That no one shall cut off a stream of water, but that everyone shall contribute food to beggars and cripples, and that such shall have favour with God. That no one shall keep any one from performing funeral houours to the dead, but shall even throw upon them so much earth as is sufficient to protect them from impiety : that no one shall violate or move, in any manner or degree whatever, the graves, or tombs, or memorials of those who are dead. That no one shall add bonds, or any evil, or heap any additional suffering on him who is in trouble. That no one shall eradicate the generative powers of a man. That no one shall cause the offspring of women to be abortive by means of miscarriage, or by any other contrivance. That no one shall treat animals, in any respect, in a manner contrary to the injunctions imposed, whether by God or by a lawgiver.

That no one shall cause his seed to disappear. That no one shall enslave his offspring. That no one shall apply a false balance, or an inadequate measure, or bad money. That no one shall tell the secrets of his friends in a foreign land. Where, in God's name, are these yokes of oxen of ours gone ? And look also at other commandments besides these. It is ordained, that no one shall fix the residence of the parents apart from that of the children, not even if they are prisoners of war ; nor that of a wife from that of her husband, even though a man may be her master, having purchased her lawfully.

These commandments now are of a more solemn and important character, but there are others of apparently a trivial and ordinary kind. It is not lawful, says the lawgiver, to strip a nest wholly of its young ; it is not lawful to reject the supplication of animals of any kind whatever, which flee to you for refuge, not even if any of them are very insignificant. You may say, perhaps, that these things are of no consequence whatever, but still, at least, the law which speaks of these particulars is of importance, and deserving of all imaginable care and attention; and the declarations are important, and so are the curses which threaten those who violate these laws with destruction ; and God looks over all such matters, and is an avenger and punisher on every occasion and in every place.

And then after a few more sentences he adds, —

And if it should happen that duriug a whole day, or I should rather say, not one day only but many, and those too not coming immediately one after another, but with intervals between them, even intervals of a week at a time, the custom, as is always natural, which is drawn from ordinary days prevails. Do you not wonder, that not a single one of all these commandments has been violated ? Is not this a mark of great temperance and self-restraint, derived to them from practice alone, so that they act towards one another with perfect equality, and are able to derive strength from those actions if it be necessary ? Surely not so ; but the lawgiver thought that it ought to be derived from some great and admirable circumstance, that they should not only be competent to do other things in the same manner, but should also be imbued with a thorough knowledge of their national laws and customs.

What then did he do on this sabbath day ? he commanded all the people to assemble together in the same place, and sitting down with one another, to listen to the laws with order and reverence, in order that no one should be ignorant of anything that is contained in them; and, in fact, they do constantly assemble together, and they do sit down one with another, the multitude in general in silence, except when it is customary to say any words of good omen, by way of assent to what is being read. And then some priest who is present, or some one of the elders, reads the sacred laws to them, and inteprets each of them separately till eventide ; and then

when separate they depart, having gained some skill in the sacred laws, and having made great advances towards piety.

Do not these objects appear to you to be of greater importance than any other pursuit can possibly be ? Therefore they do not go to interpreters of laws to learn what they ought to do ; and even without asking, they are in no ignorance respecting the laws, so as to be likely, through following their own inclinations, to do wrong; but if you violate or alter any one of their laws, or if you ask any one of them about their national laws or customs, they can all tell you at once, without any difficulty ; and the husband appears to be a master, endowed with sufficient authority to explain these laws to his wife, a father to teach them to his children, and a master to his servants.

And again, it is easy to speak in the same manner with respect to the seventh year, though, perhaps, one is not to say exactly the same things, for they do not abstain from all work as they do on the sabbath days, only they leave their land fallow till the next year, in order that so it may become productive ; for they think that thus it becomes much better after having had this rest, and then that it may be cultivated again, and not be dried up and exhausted by the uninterrupted continuance of cultivation ; and you may see that a similar practice conduces to strength of body, for not only do intervals of relaxation contribute to health, but you may see too that physicians also enjoin a degree of rest at times from work ; for what is incessant, and uninterrupted, and always the same, is likely to be injurious, especially in the case of hard work, the cultivation of the land.

And a proof of this is, that if any one were to recommend the people to cultivate the land itself much more, and to add this seventh year also, and should promise them that the usual crops of fruit should reward their labours, they still would not adopt his advice, for they think that they are not alone entitled to rest from their labours, and yet even if they were to do so, it would be nothing strange ; but they think that their land also deserves a certain degree of rest and exemption, in order again to receive a fresh beginning of care and cultivation ; since, in God's name, what could hinder them from letting it out during the year of jubilee thus proposed, and then receiving its annual produce once a year from those who rented and

cultivated it ? But as I said before, they will not admit of any such expedient in any manner or degree whatever, out of care, as it seems to me, for the welfare of the land ; and this is truly a very great proof of their humanity and moderation.

For, since they themselves rest from their labours during that year, they think that it is not right either to collect the fruits or crops which are produced, nor to lay up any thing which has not accrued to them from their own labours ; but, as if God provided for them while the land is thus enjoying rest and regulating itself according to its will, they think that any one who chooses or who is in want, any traveller or stranger, may gather the fruit that year with impunity.

However, this is enough to say to you on these matters ; for, as to the fact of this law existing among them with regard to the seventh day and seventh year, you will not inquire of me, as you have perhaps heard it often from many persons, both physicians, and investigators of natural history, and philosophers, who discuss this law about the seventh year, as to the effect which it has on the nature of the universe, and especially on the nature of man.

This is what he says about the seventh day.

From the same book, c. 8.

I shall be contented with the testimony of Philo on the present occasion, which he has given about the matter which I am here explaining in many passages of his treatises. And now do you take that work which he has written in defence of the Jewish nation, and read the following sentences in it.

But our lawgiver trained an innumerable body of his pupils to partake in those things, who are called Essenes, being, as I imagine, honoured with this appellation because of their exceeding holiness.

And they dwell in many cities of Judcea, and in many villages, and in great and populous communities. And this sect of them is not an hereditary or family connexion ; for family ties are not spoken of with reference to acts voluntarily performed ; but it is adopted because of their admiration for virtue and love of gentleness and humanity. At all events, there are no childrei\ among the Essenes, no, nor any youths or persons only just entering upon manhood; since the dispositions of all such persons are unstable and liable to change, from the

220 PEILO JUD.-EUS.

imperfections incident to their age, but they are all full-grown men, and even already declining towards old age, such as are no longer carried away by the impetuosity of their bodily passions, and are not under the influence of the appetites, but such as enjoy a genuine freedom, the only true and real liberty. And a proof of this is to be found in their life of perfect freedom ; no one among them ventures at all to acquire any property whatever of his own, neither house, nor slave, nor farm, nor flocks and herds, nor any thing of any sort which can be looked upon as the fountain or provision of riches ; but they bring them together into the middle as a common stock, and enjoy one common general benefit from it all.

And they all dwell in the same place, making clubs, and societies, and combinations, and unions with one another, and doing every thing throughout their whole lives with reference to the general advantage ; but the different members of this body have different employments in which they occupy themselves, and labour without hesitation and without cessation, making no mention of either cold, or heat, or any changes of weather or temperature as an excuse for desisting from their tasks. But before the sun rises they betake themselves to their daily work, and they do not quit it till some time after it has set, when they return home rejoicing no less than those who have been exercising themselves in gymnastic contests ; for they imagine that whatever they devote themselves to as a practice is a sort of gymnastic exercise of more advantage to life, and more pleasant both to soul and body, and of more enduring benefit and equability, than mere athletic labours, inasmuch as such toil does not cease to be practised with delight when the age of vigour of body is passed ; for there are some of them who are devoted to the practice of agriculture, being skilful in such things as pertain to the sowing and cultivation of lands ; others again are shepherds, or cowherds, and experienced in the management of every kind of animal ; some are cunning in what relates to swarms of bees ; others again are artisans and handicraftsmen, in order to guard against suffering from the want of anything of which there is at times an actual need ; and these men omit and delay nothing, which is requisite for the innocent supply of the necessaries of life.

Accordingly, each of these men, who differ so widely in their respective employments, when they have received their wages

give them up to one person who is appointed as the universal steward and general manager ; and he, when he has received the money, immediately goes and purchases what is necessary and furnishes them with food in abundance, and all other things of which the life of mankind stands in need. And those who live together and eat at the same table are day after day contented with the same things, being lovers of frugality and moderation, and averse to all sumptuousness and extravagance as a disease of both mind and body. And not only are their tables in common but also their dress ; for in the winter there are thick cloaks found, and in the summer light cheap mantles, so that whoever wants one is at liberty without restraint to go and take whichever kind he chooses ; since what belongs to one belongs to all, and on the other hand whatever belongs to the whole body belongs to each individual.

And again, if any one of them is sick he is cured from the common resources, being attended to by the general care and anxiety of the whole body. Accordingly the old men, even if they happen to be childless, as if they were not only the fathers of many children but were even also particularly happy in an affectionate offspring, are accustomed to end their lives in a most happy and prosperous and carefully attended old age, being looked upon by such a number of people as worthy of so much honour and provident regard that they think themselves bound to care for them even more from inclination than from any tie of natural affection.

Again, perceiving with more than ordinary acuteness and accuracy, what is alone or at least above all other things calculated to dissolve such associations, they repudiate marriage ; and at the same time they practise continence in an eminent degree ; for no one of the Essenes ever marries a wife, because woman is a selfish creature and one addicted to jealousy in an immoderate degree, and terribly calculated to agitate and overturn the natural inclinations of a man, and to mislead him by her continual tricks; for as she is always studying deceitful speeches and all other kinds of hypocrisy, like an actress on the stage, when she is alluring the eyes and ears of her husband, she proceeds to cajole his predominant mind after the servants have been deceived.

And again, if there are children she becomes full of pride and all kinds/of license in her speech, and all the obscura

sayings which she previously meditated in irony in a disguised manner she now begins to utter with audacious confidence ; and becoming utterly shameless she proceeds to acts of violence, and does numbers of actions of which every one is hostile to such associations ; for the man who is bound under the influence of the charms of a woman, or of children, by the necessary ties of nature, being overwhelmed by the impulses of affection, is no longer the same person towards others, but is entirely changed, having, without being aware of it, become a slave instead of a free man.

This now is the enviable system of life of these Essenes, so that not only private individuals but even mighty kings, ' admiring the men, venerate their sect, and increase their dignity and majesty in a still higher degree by their approbation and by the honours which they confer on them.

From the same book, c. 13

These things then are what may be said on the subject of the world having been created. And the same man also says a great number of very novel and bold things in his treatise on Providence, on the subject of the universe being governed by prudence ; first of all putting forward the propositions of the atheists, and then proceeding to reply to each of them in regular order. And I will now proceed to extract some of the arguments which he adduces, even though they may appear somewhat prolix, because they are nevertheless necessary and important, abridging indeed the greater portion of them. Now he conducts his argument in this way ; these are his words.

Do you say then that there is providence in such a vast confusion and disorder of affairs ? For, in fact, which of the circumstances and occurrences of human life is regulated by any principle of order? which of them is not full of all kinds of irregularity and destruction ? Are you the only person who is ignorant that blessings in complete abundance are heaped upon the most wicked and worthless of mankind ? such, for instance, as wealth, a high reputation, honour in the eyes of the multitude, authority ? moreover, health, a good condition of the outward senses, beauty, strength, and unimpeded enjoyment of all good things, by means of an abundance of supplies and resources and preparations of every kind, and in consequence of the peaceful good fortune and good condition of the

body? But all the lovers and practisers of wisdom and prudence, and every kind of virtue, everyone of them I may almost say, are poor, unknown, inglorious, and in a mean condition.

Having said thus much with respect to the outward circumstances of, and a vast number of other things affecting, these men, he then immediately proceeds to refute the objections of his adversaries by the following arguments.

God is not a tyrant who practises cruelty and violence and all the other acts of insolent authority like an inexorable master, but he is rather a sovereign invested with a humane and lawful authority, and as such he governs all the heaven and the whole world in accordance with justice. And there is no form of address with which a king can more appropriately be saluted than the name of father ; for what, in human relationships, parents are to their children, that also sovereigns are to their states, and God towards the world, having adapted these two most beautiful things by the unchangeable laws of nature, by an indissoluble union, namely the authority of the leader with the anxious care of a relation ; for as parents are not wholly indifferent to even ill-behaved children, but, having compassion on their unfortunate dispositions, they are careful and anxious for their welfare, looking upon it as the act of relentless and. irreconcileable enemies to insult and increase their misfortunes, but as the part of friends and relations to lighten their disasters : and indeed in the excess of

their liberality they even give more to such children than to those who have always been well conducted, knowing well that to these last their own moderation is at all times an abundant resource and means of riches, but that the others have no other hope except in their parents, and that if they are disappointed in that they will be destitute of even the necessaries of life.

So in the same manner, God, who is the father of all rational understanding, takes care of all those beings who are endovved with reason, and exercises a providential power for the protection even of those who are living in a blameable manner, giving them at the same time opportunity of correcting their errors, and nevertheless not violating the dictates of his own merciful nature, of which virtue and humanity are the regular attendants, being willing to have their dwelling in the

God-created world ; this one argument now, do thou, 0 my soul, take to thyself, and store up within thyself as a sacred deposit, and this other also as consistent with and in perfect harmony with it. Do not ever be so deceived and wander from the truth to such a degree as to think any wicked man happy, even though he may be richer than Crcesus, and more sharp-sighted than Lynceus, and more powerful than Milo of Crotena, and more beautiful than Ganymede,

" Whom the immortal gods, for beauty's sake, Did raise up from the vile earth to heaven, To be the cup-bearer of mighty Jove."

Accordingly, such a man, having shown his own dsemon, I mean to say his own mind, to be the slave of ten thousand thousand different masters, such as love, appetite, pleasure, fear, pain, folly, intemperance, cowardice, injustice, he can never possibly be happy, even if the multitude, being utterly misled and deprived of their judgment, were to think him so, being corrupted by a double evil, pride and vain opinion, by which souls without ballast must infallibly be tossed about and driven out of their course ; for these evils, above all others, injure the chief multitude of mankind.

If, then, fixing the eyes of the mind steadily upon the truth, you should be inclined to contemplate the providence of God as far as the powers of human reason are capable of doing it, then, when you have attained to a closer conception of the true and only good, you will laugh at those things which belong to men which you for some time admired ; for what is worse is always honoured in the absence of what is better, as it then usurps its place ; but when that which is better appears, then that which is worse retires, and is contented with the second prize. Therefore, admiring that godlike excellence and beauty, you will by ail means perceive that none of the things previously mentioned were by themselves thought worthy of the better portion by God. On which account the mines of silver and gold are the most worthless portion of the earth, which is altogether and wholly unfit for the production of fruits and food ; for abundance of riches is not like food, a thing without which one cannot live. And the one great and manifest test of all these things is hunger, by which it is seen what is in truth really necessary and useful ; for a person when oppressed by hunger

would gladly give all the treasures in the whole world in exchange for a little food ; but when there is an abundance of necessary things poured out in a plentiful and unlimited supply, and flowing over all the cities of the land, then we, the citizens, indulging luxuriously in the good things provided by nature, are not contented to stop at them alone, but set up satiated insolence as the guide of our lives, and devoting ourselves to the acquisition of silver and gold, and of everything else by which we hope to acquire gain, proceed in everything like blind men, no longer exciting the eyes of our intellect by reason of our covetousness, so far as to see that riches are but the burden of the earth, and are the cause of continual and uninterrupted war instead of peace.

Our garments are indeed, as some one of the poets says somewhere, " the flower of the sheep ;" but with reference to the art displayed in their manufacture, they are the praise of the weavers. And if any one is proud of any glory which he may have acquired, being greatly delighted at his popularity among worthless people, he should know that he also is worthless, for he delights in them. And let such a man pray to receive purification so as to have the disease of his ears healed, as it is through his ears that his soul is affected with great diseases. Again : let those men who are proud of their personal strength and activity learn not to be high-minded on such an account, looking at countless kinds of both domesticated and wild beasts, which are also endowed with great strength and power; for it is the most absurd thing imaginable for one who is a man to pride himself on the good qualities of beasts, and that too when the beasts themselves are thought of no importance whatever by him.

Again : why should any man in his senses rejoice at beauty of person, which a short period must extinguish before it has flourished for any great length of time, since time always obscures its deceitful prime? and this too, when he sees that even in lifeless things there are objects of surpassing beauty, such os the works of painters, and sculptors, and other artists, displayed in paintings, and statues, and all kinds of embroidery, and weaving, which are held in the greatest honour in Greece and in the countries of the barbarians in every city. Of these things, then, as I have said, not one is accounted by God worthy of the better portion.

VOL. IV Q

And why should we wonder if they are not highly esteemed hy God ? for they are not even by those men who are very religious and devout, among whom those things which are really good and virtuous are held in honour, inasmuch as they have a good and well-disposed nature, and have improved their natural good qualities by study and practice, of which a genuine true philosophy is the maker. But those who have devoted themselves to a bastard kind of philosophy have not even imitated physicians who give their attention to the body, the slave of the soul, though nevertheless they affirm that they are healing the mistress, that is to say, the soul itself ; for then, when any such man is sick, even if he be the great king himself, passing over all the colonnades, and the men's chambers, and the women's chambers, and the pictures, and the silver and the gold, whether in money or in bullion, and the vast treasuresof cups and works of embroidery, and all the rest of the celebrated ornaments of kings, and the multitude of his servants, and of his friends, or relatives, and subjects, and the chief officers who are about his person, and his body-guards, they come up to his bedside, paying no attention even to the decorations of his person, and not stopping to notice with admiration that his bed is inlaid with precious stones, or that his coverlet is of the finest workmanship and the most exquisite embroidery, nor that the fashion of his garments is of superlative beauty, but they even pull off the clothes in which he is wrapped, and lay hold of his hands, and press his veins, and feel his pulse, and note its beating accurately to see if it is in a healthy condition ; very often too, they pull up his tunic and feel whether his stomach is too full, whether his chest is feverish, whether his heart beats irregularly. And then, when they have ascertained the symptoms, they apply the appropriate remedies.

And in like manner, it would become philosophers who profess to be versed in the healing science as applicable to the soul, which is by nature the dominant part of the man, to despise all the things which erroneous opinion raises up as objects of pride, and to penetrate within, and to lay their hands upon the intellect itself, to see whether through passion its pulses are of an uneven rapidity and moving in an irregular and unnatural manner, and to touch the tongue, and see whether it is rough and devoted to evil-speaking, whether it is prostituted to evil purposes and unmanageable ; also to touch

the belly, and see whether it is swollen with the insatiable characteristics of desire, and, in short, of any other passions, and diseases, and infirmities, and to examine every one of those feelings, if they appear to be in a state of confusion, so that they may not be ignorant of what is proper to be applied to the soul with a reference to its cure.

But now being lightened up all round by the brilliancy of external things, as being unable to see that light which is perceptible only by the intellect, they have passed their whole existence in a state of error, not being able to penetrate as far as royal thought, but being with difficulty able to reach the outer courts, and admiring those servants who stand at the gates of virtue, wealth, and glory, and health, and other kindred circumstances, they fall down in adoration before them. But as it would be an extravagance of insauity to take blind men for judges of colour, or deaf men as judges of the sounds of music, so it is a most preposterous act to take wicked men as judges of real good. For these men are mutilated in the most important parts of themselves, namely, their intellect, over which folly has shed a deep darkness. Do we then now wonder if Socrates, and such and such a virtuous man, has lived in purity ? men who have never once studied any of the means of providing themselves with pecuniary resources, and who have never, even when it was in their power, condescended to accept great gifts which have been tendered to their acceptance by wealthy friends or mighty kings, because they looked upon the acquisition of virtue as the only good, the only beautiful thing, and have therefore laboured at that, and disregarded all other good things.

And who is there who would not disregard spurious good things in comparison of genuine ones? But if while they received a mortal body, and were full of liability to all kinds of human disasters, and lived among such a number of unjust actions and unrighteous men, of which the very number is not easy to compute accurately, they were plotted against by their euemies, why do we blame nature when we ought rather to accuse the barbarity of those who thus set upon them ? For 80 in like manner, if they had been placed in a pestilential climate, they would inevitably have become sick ; and wickedness is even more, or at all events not less, destructive than a pestilential state of the atmosphere. But as when there is rain

the wise man, if he is in the open air, must inevitably get wet through, and if the cold north wind blows he must be oppressed by cold and shivering, and when summer is at its height he must feel the heat, for it is a law of nature that the bodies of men should be simultaneously affected by the changes of the seasons ; so also in the same way a man who lives in such places,

" Where slaughters dire and famines might prevail, And all the ills which thus mankind assail,"

must inevitably pay the penalty which such evils inflict upon him.

Since in the case of Polycrates at least, in retaliation for the terrible acts of injustice and impiety which he committed, there fell upon him great misery in his subsequent life as a terrible requital for his previous good fortune. Add to this that he was chastised by a mighty sovereign, aud was crucified by him, fulfilling the prediction of the oracle : " I knew," said he, " long before I took it into my head to go to consult the oracle, that I was anointed by the sun and washed by Jupiter," for these enigmatical assertions, expressed in symbolical language having been originally couched in unintelligible language, afterwards receive a most manifest confirmation by the events which followed them. But it was not only at the end of his existence, but indeed during the whole period of his life from its earliest commencement that he was, though without being aware of it, making his soul to depend wholly on his body ; for as he was always in a state of alarm and trepidation, he feared the multitude of enemies who might possibly attack him, being well assured that no one in the world was really well affected towards him, but that every one was hostile to him, and would turn out implacable enemies if he should be unfortunate.

Again, of unsuccessful and yet of never-ending precautions those writers who have written the history of Sicily are witnesses, for they say that the tyrant of Sicily suspected even his most affectionately loved wife ; and a proof of this is that he ordered the entrance of his chamber by which she was about to have access to him to be strewed with planks, in order that she might never come upon him without being observed, but that the noise and tumult made by her stepping on these boards

FRAGMENTS. Q29

might indicate her approach beforehand ; and besides this he compelled her to come not only without her robe, but even naked in every part, and even in those which ought not to be seen by men. And in addition to this he ordered the whole of the flooring along the road to be cut in width and depth like a trench made by farmers, out of fear lest anything should be secretly concealed so as to plot against him, which would inevitably be detected by the leaps and long steps which a person coming along this path would be compelled to take.

Of how many miseries, then, was that man full who took all these precautions and practised all these contrivances against his own wife, whom he ought to have trusted above all other human beings ? But he was like those men who scale precipices and climb over abrupt and steep mountains for the purpose of attaining to a more accurate comprehension of the natures of things in heaven, who at last after they have with great difficulty ascended to some overhanging ridge, find themselves unable to advance any further as they are too much exhausted to think of attempting the remaining portion of the mountain, and also want courage to descend, being giddy at the sight of the chasms and ravines below them ; for he, being in love with sovereign power as a godlike thing to be desired above all other objects, looked upon it as unsafe either to remain where he was or to retreat, for he considered that if he remained where he was innumerable other evils would come upon him in rapid and uninterrupted succession, while if he decided on retracing his steps his very life would be in danger, as there were enemies around, if not as to their bodies at all events in their minds, against him.

And he also showed the truth of all this by the treatment to which he exposed a friend of his who spoke of the life of a tyrant as one of complete and absolute happiness ; for, having invited him to a banquet which had been prepared in a most brilliant and costly manner, he ordered a sharp sword to be suspended over his head by a very fine thread, and when he, after he had sat down to the banquet, on a sudden perceived it, not daring to rise up and quit his place for fear of the tyrant, and not being able to enjoy any of the things which were prepared out of fear, he disregarded all the abundant and superb luxuries by which he was surrounded, and keeping his

neck and his eyes turned upwards, sat in the expectation of instant death.

And when Dionysius perceived the state in which he was, he said to him, " Do you then at last begin to understand the true character of that illustrious and enviable life of ours, for this is what it really is if a man chooses to speak of it without flattery or disguise, since it contains indeed a great abundance of resources and supplies, but no enjoyment of any real blessing ; and it causes its possessor incessant fears and irremediable and unavoidable dangers, and a disease worse than the most contagious or most fatal sickness, which is continually threatening inevitable death. But the inconsiderate multitude, being deceived by the outward brilliancy and splendour of the position, are like people who are attracted by showy looking courtesans, who, concealing their real deformity under fine clothes and golden ornaments, and pencilling their eyes from want of any real beauty, manufacture a spurious beauty in order to lie in wait for and catch the beholders.

Now men who are placed in situations of great prosperity are full of such unhappiness as this, of the greatness of which they themselves are fully aware, and they do not at all keep it to themselves, but like men who under compulsion divulge secret things, they often utter the truest possible expressions, which are extorted from them by suffering, living in the continual company of punishment both present and expected, just like cattle who are being fattened up for sacrifice, for they too

Horace alludes to the story of Damocles, Od. III. i. 16. Districtus ensis cui semper impia Cervice pendet, non Sicula? dapes Dulcem elaborabunt saporem, Non avium citharseque cantus Somnum reducent Somnus agrestium Lenis viroruin non humiles domos Fastidit.

Which may be translated —

" Care murders sleep ; the man who's learnt to dread The sword unsafely trembling o'er his head, In vain to court his sad distracted taste The table groans beneath the varied feast. Sad Philomel's untutored song is vain, And vain the swelling flute's more laboured strain, To close his eyes in sleep, the envied lot Of weary peasant in his humbler cot."

are treated with the greatest possible attention in order to be lit to be sacrificed by reason of their fleshiness and good condition. There are also some men who have suffered punishment, and that not concealed, but visible, and notorious for the impiety of the means by which they have acquired riches, the names and numbers of whom it would be superfluous to enumerate, but it will be sufficient to bring forward one instance as a specimen of the whole.

It is said, then, by those who have written the History of the Sacred War in Phocis that as there was a law established that any one who was guilty of sacrilege should be either thrown down a precipice, or drowned in the sea, or burnt alive, that those men who had pillaged the temple at Delphi, by name Philomelus, and Onomarchus, and Phayllus, divided these punishments among them, for that the first fell down a rugged and precipitous rock and was dashed to pieces on the stones, and that the second, when the horse which he was riding grew restive and plunged down towards the sea, was overwhelmed by the waves, and so fell alive into a devouring gulf ; and Phayllus was wasted away by a consumptive disease (for the way in which the story is told about him is twofold), or else perished in the temple at Abas, being burnt in it when it was destroyed by fire. For it must be the mere spirit of obstinacy and arguing to say that all these events took place by mere chance, for if indeed one or two of them had been punished at different periods or by some other mode of punishment, then it would have been reasonable to impute their fate to the uncertainty of fortune, but when they all died together and at one time, and by no other punishment but by that precise end which is appointed in the laws for the punishment of such crimes as those of which they had been guilty, it is surely fair to say that they perished by the direct condemnation of God.

But if any of the violent men who are unmentioned, and •who have at different times risen up against the people in their several states, and have enslaved not only other nations, but their own countries too, have still died without meeting with punishment, it is not to be wondered at, for in the first place man does not judge as God judges, because we investigate what is visible to ourselves, but he descends into the secret recesses of the soul without making any noise, and there con-

templates the mind in the clear light, as if in the sun ; for stripping off from it all the ornaments in which it is enveloped, and seeing its devices and intentions naked, he immediately distinguishes between the bad and the good.

Let not us then, preferring our own judgment to that of God, assert that it is more unerring or more full of wisdom than his, for that is not consistent with holiness ; for in the one there are many things which deceive it, such as the treacherous outward senses, the insidious character of the passions, the most terrible attacks of vice, but in the other there is nothing which can at all conduce to deceit or error, but justice and truth, by which each separate action is determined on, and in this way is naturally rectified in the most praiseworthy manner.

Do not thou, then, my good friend, consider tyrannical power, that most unprofitable of all things, to be a seasonable possession ; for neither is punishment disadvantageous, but it is either more beneficial, or at all events not injurious to the good to suffer due punishment, on which account it is expressly comprehended in all laws which are wisely enacted, and those who have established such laws are praised by every one ; for what a tyrant is in a people, that is punishment in a law.

When therefore a want and terrible scarcity of virtue seizes upon cities, and when a great abundance of folly overwhelms everything, then God, like the stream of an overflowing torrent, being desirous to wash away all the power and impetuosity of wickedness, in order to purify our race, gives vigour and power to those men who by their natures are fitted to exercise dominion, for without a stern soul wickedness cannot be got rid of. And just as cities keep executioners for the punishment of murderers, and traitors, and sacrilegious persons, not because they approve of the dispositions of the men, but because they have need of the serviceable part of their ministrations ; in the same manner the Ruler of this mighty city, the world, appoints tyrants, like ordinary executioners, to be over those cities in which he sees that violence, and injustice, and impiety prevail, and all other kinds of evils in abundance, that he may by these means put an end to their existence. And then he thinks it right to pursue the guilty, as men who have been serving these vices from the impulses of an impure and pitiless soul, with every punishment imaginable, as the

ringleaders ; for as the power of fire when it has consumed the fuel which was given to it, at last consumes itself also, so also do those who have received supreme power over nations, when they have exhausted the cities and rendered them destitute of inhabitants, at last perish themselves among them, suffering due punishment for all that they have done.

And why should we wonder if God employs the agency of tyrants to get rid of wickedness when widely diffused over cities, and countries, and nations? For he very often uses other ministers, and himself brings about the same end by his own resources, inflicting upon the nation famine, or pestilence, or earthquakes, or any other heaven-sent calamity, by which great and numerous multitudes perish every day, and by which a great portion of the habitable world is made desolate, on account of his care for the preservation of virtue.

Therefore I have now, as I conceive, spoken at sufficient length on the present subject, namely, that no wicked man is happy, by which fact above all others it may be established that there is such a thing as providence ; but if you are not thoroughly convinced, then tell me boldly what is the doubt which is still lurking in your mind, for then both of us by labouring together shall be able to see clearly what the real truth is.

And after some more arguments, he proceeds thus : —

God causes the violent storms of wind and rain which we see, not for the injury of those who traverse the sea, as you fancied, or of those who till the earth, but for the general benefit of the whole of the human race, for with his water he cleanses the earth, and with his breezes he purifies all the regions beneath the moon, and by the united influence of both he nourishes and promotes the growth and brings to perfection both animals and plants. And if at times these things do injure those who put to sea or who till the land at unseasonable moments, it is not to be wondered at, for these men are but a small portion of the human race, and the care of God is exerted for the benefit of all mankind.

As, therefore, in a gymnastic school oil is placed there for the common benefit of every one, but still it often happens that the master of the school, by reason of some political necessity changes the arrangement of the usual hours of exercise, by which means some of those who wish to anoint,

themselves come too late ; in like manner God, who takes care of the whole world as if it were a city committed to his charge, does sometimes cause the summer to resemble winter, and winter to assume the characteristics of spring, for the common benefit of the universe, even though some captains of ships, or some cultivators of the ground, may very likely be injured by this irregularity of the seasons. Therefore He, bein" aware that the occasional interchanges of the elements with one another, out of which the world was made, and of which it consists, are a work of the greatest importance and necessity, supplies them without allowing anything to be an obstacle to them ; and frost and snow-storms, and other things of that kind, follow the cooling of the air. And, again, lightnings and thunders arise from the collision and repercussion of the clouds, none of which things are perhaps effected by any immediate exertion of providence, but the rains and winds are the causes of existence, and nourishment, and growth to all things which are upon the earth, and these phenomena are the natural consequences of those others

For just as it often happens, when the master of a gymnastic school, out of rivalry, has gone to extravagant expense, then some of those who are ignorant of all that is becoming, haviug been bespattered with oil instead of water, let all the drops from them fall upon the boards, and then a most slippery mud is the result : nevertheless a man, whose appreciations were just would not say that the hard and the slippery state of the ground was caused by the intention of the master of the school, but that these things had resulted accidentally, in consequence of the abundant quantity of the things supplied. Again, the rainbow, and the halo, and all other things of that kind, are natural consequences of those things becoming mingled with the clouds, not being occurrences which lead and influence nature, but being the results and consequences of the operations of nature.

Not but what these very things themselves do also afford some signs of great importance to wise men, for, guiding their conjectures by them, they predict calms and storms of wind, and fine weather, and tempests. Do you not see the porticoes which embellish the cities ? the greater part of these look towards the south, in order that those who walk under

them may be warm in the winter, and may be cool in the summer.

There is also another thing which does not happen through the intention of Him who made it, and what is this ? the shadows which fall from the feet indicate the hours to our experience. And again, fire is a most important work of nature, but the consequence of fire is smoke, and nevertheless even this too at times is of some service. At all events in the heat, in the middle of the day, when the fire is rendered invisible by the brilliancy of the beams of the sun, the approach of enemies is indicated by the smoke, and the principle which causes the rainbow is also the same which, in some degree, regulates eclipses.

For eclipses are a natural consequence of the rules which regulate the divine natures of the sun and moon ; and they are indications either of the impending death of some king, or of the destruction of some city, as Pindar also has told us in enigmatical terms, alluding to such events as the consequences of the omens which I have now been mentioning.

This theory of the eclipses of the sun and other natural prodigies being prophetic of events on earth, is expressed by Virgil in a passage of the most exquisite beauty in reference to Caesar's death. Georg. i.

Denique, quid vesper serus vehat, unde serenas

Ventus agat nubes, quid cogitet humidus auster,

Sol tibi signa dabit. Solem quis dicere falsum

Audeat ? Ille etiam caecos instare tuinultus

Ssepe monet, fraudernque et operta tumescere bella.

Ille etiam extincto miseratus Csesare Romam,

Quum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine texit

Impiaque aeternam timuerunt secula noctem.

Tempora quamquam illo tellus quoque, et osquora ponti,

Obscaenique canes, importunaeque volucres

Signa dabaut. Quoties Cyclopum effervere in agros

Vidimus undantem ruptis fornacibus ^Etnam,

Flammarumque globos, liquefactaque volvere saxa !

Armorum sonitum toto Germania ccelo

Audiit : insolitis tremuerunt rnotibus Alpes.

Vox quoque per lucos volgo exaudita silentis

Ingens : et simulacra modis palleutia miris

Visa sub obscurum noctis : pecudesque locutEC,

Infandum ! sistunt amnes, terrseque dehiscunt,

Et moestum inlacrimat templis ebur, aeraque sudant.

Proluit insano contorquens vortice silvas

Fluviorum rex Eridanus, camposque per omnia

And the circle of the Milky Way partakes of the same natural essences with the other stars ; but merely the fact that it is hard to account for, is no reason that those who are ac-

Cum stabulis armenta tulit. Nee tempore eodem Tristibus aut extis fibres adparere minaces, Aut puteis manare cruor cessavit : et altae Per noctem resonare, lupis ululantibus, urbes : Non alias ccelo ceciderunt plura sereno Fulgura : nee diri toties arsere cometae. Ergo inter sese paribus concurrere telis Eomanas acies iterum videre Philippi.

Or as it is translated by Dryden —

" Tbe unerring sun by certain signs declares What the late eve or early morn prepares, And when the south projects a stormy day, And when the clearing north will puff the clouds away. The sun reveals the secrets of the sky, And who dares give the source of light the lie ? The change of empires often he declares, Fierce tumults, hidden treasons, open wars. He first the fate of Caesar did foretell, And pitied Rome, when Rome in Caesar fell, In iron clouds concealed the public light, And impious mortals feared eternal night. Nor was the fact foretold by him alone, Nature herself stood forth and seconded the sun. Earth, air, and seas with prodigies were signed, And birds obscene and howling dogs divined ; What rocks did ./Etna's bellowing mouth expire From her torn entrails ! and what floods of fire. What clanks were heard in German skies afar Of arms and armies rushing to the war. Dire earthquakes rent the solid Alps below, And from their summits shook the eternal snow. Pale spectres in the close of night were seen, And voices heard of more than mortal men. In silent groves dumb sheep and oxen spoke, And streams, ran backward and their beds forsook ; The yawning earth disclosed the abyss of hell, The weeping statues did the wars foretell, And holy sweat from brazen idols fell. Then rising in his might, the king of floods Rushed through the forests, tore the lofty woods, And rolling o uvards, with a sweepy sway Bore houses, lands, and labouring hinds away. Blood sprang from wells, wolves howled in turns by night, And boding victims did the priests affright.

customed to investigate the principles of nature should shrink from examining into it ; for the discovery of those things is most beneficial, and the investigation of them is intrinsically most delightful for its own sake, to those who are fond of learning.

For as the sun and moon exist in consequence of Providence, so also do all things in heaven, even though we are uuable to trace out accurately the respective natures and powers of each, and are, therefore, reduced to silence about them : and earthquakes, and pestilences, and the fall of thunderbolts, and things of that kind, are said indeed to be sent by God, but, in reality, they are not so, for God is absolutely not the cause of any evil whatever of any kind, but the natural changes of the elements produce these effects, not as circumstances which guide nature, but as those which are followed by necessary results, and which do themselves follow naturally upon their antecedent causes. And if some people, who think themselves entitled to immunity meet with some injury from these things, they are still not to find fault with their management and dispensation ; for, in the first place, it does not follow, that if some persons are reckoned virtuous among men, they are so in real truth ; since the criteria by which God judges are far more accurate than any of the tests by which the human mind is guided. And, in the second place, prophetic wisdom loves to contemplate those things in the world which are of the most comprehensive nature, as in the case of monarchies, and in the governments of armies, we see that it is not any obscure, ignoble, or chance person who is appoiuted to govern the cities or the armies.

And some persons say that as on occasion of the slaying of tyrants, it is lawful that their relations also should be put to death, in order that transgressions may be checked by the terrible magnitude of the punishment inflicted : in like manner in pestilential diseases, it is necessary that some of those who are not guilty should be involved in the destruction, in order

Such peals of thunder never poured from high, Nor forky lightnings flashed from such a sullen sky ; Red meteor-- ran across the ethereal space, Stars disappeared and comets took their place. For this the Emathian plains once more were strewed With Roman bodies, and just heaven thought good To fatten twice those fields with Roman blood."

that others who are at a distance may learn moderation. Besides that, it is inevitable that those who are exposed to a pestilential atmosphere must become diseased just as all persons who are exposed to a storm on board a ship must be all exposed to equal danger. But those wild beasts which are courageous have been created ; for we must not suppress the truth (as if one were to anticipate the defence likely to be made by a man of powerful eloquence and tare it to pieces beforehand), in order that men may, by practising against them, acquire hardihood for the contests of war ; for gymnastic exercises and continued hunting train men and inure their souls in a greater degree even than their bodies to rely upon their own courage, and energy, and strength, so as to disregard the sudden attacks of their enemies.

But those men who are of peaceable character are at liberty to keep themselves not only within their walls, but also even within tents, and there to live in privacy, safe from the designs of any enemies, having vast and countless herds of domestic ' animals to help their enjoyment ; since boars and lions, and animals of that kind, are by their own instinct driven to a distance from cities, not being inclined to expose themselves to danger in consequence of the devices of men. And if any men, being influenced by a spirit of laziness and indolence, living without arms and without preparation, dwell fearlessly among the haunts of wild beasts, then if anything happens to them they must blame not nature but themselves, because when they might have guarded against any such disasters, they have neglected them. Accordingly, before now, I have seen at the horse-races some persons acting in a most careless manner, who, when they ought to have sat still and to have beheld the races in an orderly manner, standing in the middle have been knocked down by the horses' feet and by the wheels, and have met with a proper reward for their folly.

We have now, then, said enough on this subject.

But of reptiles, those which are venomous have not been called into existence by an immediate providence, but by the natural consequences of events, as I said before ; for they are brought into life when the moisture which is in them changes to a more violent heat ; and some are vivified by putrefaction, as, for instance, the putrefaction of meat produces maggots, and that which is caused by perspiration produces lice ; but all

those which are produced out of a kindred substance, and which have their generation in accordance with the usual spermatic principles which I have mentioned before, are very naturally ascribed to an immediate providence. And I have also heard two accounts given of them as having been created for the advantage of mankind, which I should not think it well to conceal. Now one of them is the following.

Some persons have said that venomous animals contribute greatly to many of the objects of physicians, and that those who reduce that science to a regular system use them in a proper manner, and, acting with great wisdom and prudence, have discovered antidotes, so as to be able to contribute to the unexpected safety of those who were in the greatest possible danger ; and even at the present time one may see thos"e persons who apply themselves to the study of medicine, in a careful and diligent manner, using all these animals and plants in a most skilful manner in the composition of drugs.

The other account has no reference to the practice of physicians, but only as it would seem to the studies of philosophers. For it says that all these things have been prepared by God as engines of punishment against offenders, just as generals and rulers prepare halters and chains. On which account, though they are quiet at other times, they are brought out with great power in the case of people who have been condemned, and whom nature in her incorruptible tribunal has sentenced to death ; for that they lurk in secret holes and in houses, is a falsehood : for it is seen that these creatures flee out of the cities into the fields and into desert places, to avoid man as their master. Not but what, if this is true, there is a certain sense and principle in it ; for rubbish is heaped up in recesses : and quantities of sweepings, and refuse, and such things, are what venomous reptiles love to lurk in, besides the fact that their smell has an attractive power over them.

Again, if swallows live among us, it is not at all strange, for we abstain from hunting them ; and a desire of safety is implanted not only in the souls of rational creatures, but also in those of irrational animals.

But of those animals which tend to our enjoyment, there is not one which lives with us by reason of the designs which we form against them, except that some do live with those nations to whom the use of them is forbidden by the law. There is a

city of Syria, on the sea shore, Ascalon by name : when I was there, at the time when I was on my journey towards the temple of my native land for the purpose of offering up prayers and sacrifices therein, I saw a most incalculable number of pigeons on the roads and about every house ; and when I inquired the cause of their being there in such numbers, they said that it was not lawful to catch them, for that the use of them had been prohibited to the inhabitants from the earliest ages ; and so the bird had become so thoroughly tame through fearlessness, that it not only hovered about the roofs and came into the houses, but approached their tables also, and grew luxurious in the alliance which it had thus formed.

And in Egypt we may see a still more marvellous thing ; for the crocodile is the most odious of all animals, and one addicted to devour man ; and it is born and brought up in the most sacred way, and although residing in the depths, it feels the benefits which it receives from mankind ; for in those tribes, among which it is honoured, it multiplies in the greatest degree, but among those who injure it it never appears at all : so that there are places where even the most timid persons when sailing by leap out of their ships and swim about with their children.

And in the country of the Cyclops, since the race of these men is a fabulous invention, there is no eatable fruit whatever produced except such as is raised from seed and cultivated by husbandmen, just as nothing is produced from that which does not exist ; but we must not accuse Greece as being sterile and unproductive, for there is a great deal of deep and rich soil in it ; and if the land of the barbarians is superior in fruitfulness, though it is superior in the food which it produces, it is inferior in the men who are nourished by the food, and for whose sake the food is produced.

For Greece is the only country which really produces man, that heavenly plant, that divine offshort, producing that most accurately refined reason which is appropriated by and akin to knowledge ; and the cause is this, it is the nature of the intellect to be rendered acute by the lightness of the air ; on which account Heraclitus said with great propriety, " Where the soil is dry, there the soul is most wise and most excellent ;" and any one may conjecture this from the fact, that men who are sober and contented with a little are wise, and that those

who are continually filling themselves with meat and drink are the least sensible, as if their reasoning faculties were drowned by the quantity which they swallow.

And on this account we see, in the countries of the barbarians, trees and plants grow to the greatest possible size, by reason of the abundance of nourishment which they receive ; and we see too, that the irrational animals which are found in these regions are the most prolific of any, but the mind is not 80, or, at all events, it is so in a very slight degree, because it is elevated and raised out of the aether itself, while the incessant and uninterrupted evaporations of earth and water have freely boiled over it. Again, the different kinds of fish, and birds, and terrestrial animals, are not grounds for accusing nature, which invites us to pleasure by those means, but are a terrible reproach to us for our intemperate use of them, for it was necessary, for the due completion of the universe, in order that there should be order and regularity in every portion of it, that there should be produced every possible species of animal. But it was not necessary that that animal, which of all others is most akin to wisdom, namely, man, should rush with such eagerness to the enjoyment of it, as to change his nature into something resembling the ferocity of wild beasts; on which account, even up to the present time, those who have any regard for temperance entirely abstain from such things, eating only vegetables, and herbs, and the fruits of trees, as the most delicious and wholesome food.

And these men are instructors for those who look upon the practice of eating such animals to be in accordance with nature, and correct them, and are lawgivers to their respective cities, being men who take care to check the immoderate vehemence of the appetites, and who do not permit the unrestrained use of everything to everybody.

Again, if roses, and crocuses, and all the other beautiful variety of flowers which we see, contribute to health, it would not follow that they all contribute to pleasure ; for the indescribable variety of them makes the powers of some of them more conspicuous than those of others, just as there is a commingling of male and female, contributing to the generation of an animal ; neither of them being calculated, by itself, to produce the effect which the two produce in combination.

These things are said, in a most convincing manner, with

VOL. IV. R

reference to the rest of the questions raised by you, being quite sufficient to produce conviction in the minds of all who are not obstinately contentious on the subject of God taking great care of human affairs.

EXTRACTED

FROM THE PARALLELS OF JOHN OF DAMASCUS.

About the unstable and changeable condition of human affairs.

Page 326. C. If one is to tell the plain truth, man is without real power in anything, never taking a firm hold of anything. I do not mean merely of common things, but not even of those which concern himself ; neither of health, nor of a good condition of the outward senses, nor of soundness in respect of the other parts of his body, nor of his voice, nor of his presence of mind ; for as to wealth, or glory, or friends, or power, or all the other things which depend on fortune, who is there who does not know how thoroughly unstable they are ? So that we must of necessity confess that the supreme power over everything belongs to one being alone, the true Lord of all existing things.

About impious men, sinners, <£c.

P. 341. D. If you wish to be governed under God as your king, take care not to sin ; but if you commit sin, how can you be under the government of God as your king ?

About those people who have renounced such and such a line of conduct, and then turning back again, have adopted that very line which they had renounced.

P. 343. D. Some men, making improvement, have returned back to virtue before coming to the end, the ancient principle of oligarchy having destroyed the principle of aristocracy lately engendered in the soul, which having been quiet for a little while, has subsequently come up over again with greater power than before.

Ibid. When a man rightly establishes himself in a virtuous life, with meditation, and practice, and good government, and

when having been known by all men as a pious man and one who fears God, he falls into sin, that is a great fall, for he has ascended up to the height of heaven, and fallen down into the abyss of hell.

About resurrection and judgment.

P. 349. A. It is not possible with God that a wicked man should lose his good reward for a single good thing which he may have done among a great number of evil actions ; nor, on the other hand, that a good man should escape punishment, and not suffer it, if among many good actions he has done wickedly in anything, for it is infallibly certain that God distributes everything according to a just weight and balance.

Ibid. B. The mind is the witness to each individual of the things which they have planned in secret, and conscience is an incorruptible judge, and the most unerring of all judges.

About those who are ruled.

P. 359. A. He who has learnt how to submit to be ruled, immediately learns how to rule others ; for even if a man were invested with the supreme power over all the earth and all the sea, he would not be a true ruler unless he had also learnt and been previously taught to submit to the rule of others.

About anarchy.

P. 359. D. Alas, how many and great evils are produced by anarchy! Famine, war, the devastation of lands, the deprivation of money, abductions, fears of slavery, and death.

About the foolish and senseless man, <&c.

P. 362. E. No wicked man is rich, not even though he hould be the owner of all the mines in the whole world ; but til foolish men are poor. Every foolish man is straitened, jeing oppressed by covetousness, and ambition, and a love of pleasure, and things of that sort, which do not permit the mind to dwell at ease or to enjoy plenty of room.

P. 363. A. There is no greater evil to a man than folly, and the being deprived of the proper use of his reasoning powers and intellect.

P. 363. A. Ignorance is the cause of disease and destruction.

About deceit affecting the management of a household.

P. 367. D. Every stratagem is not blameable, since guardians of the night appear to act properly when they lie in wait for robbers, and generals when they form ambuscades against the enemy, whom they cannot catch without a stratagem ; and the same principle is applicable to what are called manoeuvres, and to the artifices practised in the contests of wrestlers, for in such cases deceit is accounted honourable.

About impossible things.

P. 370. B. It is as impossible that the love of the world can co-exist with the love of God, as for light and darkness to co-exist at the same time with one another.

About holy men.

P. 372. E. The happy nature is that which rejoices on every occasion, and which is not discontented with anything whatever which exists in the world, but is pleased with whatever happens, as being good, and beautiful, and expedient.

About leisure and quiet.

P. 376. A. The wise man endeavours to secure quiet and leisure, and periods of rest from work, that he may devote himself peacefully to the meditations on divine matters.

About evil-speaking.

P. 379. D. Foul speakers and random accusers, who seek to make a display of their art with vain words, being slow to learn what is good, are very quick and ready at learning what is of the opposite character.

About counsel.

P. 397. D. Everything which is not done with reason is discreditable, just as what is done with reason is beautiful.

About old men.

P. 404. C. Old age is an unruffled harbour. Ibid. Old age is the time when the vigour of the body is passed by ; the period when the passions can be checked.

About gymnasia. P. 405. D. Continued practice makes knowledge firm, just

as want of practice engenders ignorance. And, again, practice in any matter increases experience.

Ibid. Study is the nurse of knowledge.

About calumny.

P. 436. D. Calumniators and men discarded from the divine grace, who are afflicted with the same evil disposition of calumny with him, are in all respects hated and detested by God, and removed to a distance from all happiness.

Ibid. What can be worse than calumny? for it seduces the ears and perplexes the minds of those who listen to it, and it makes them brutal and always on a watch for evil, like men engaged in hunting ; but those who are well ballasted and restrained by prudent reason, hate the man who utters calumnies more than him against whom they are uttered, reproving and seeking to check all desire of blaming others until it be either proved by evidence or demonstrated by undeniable proof.

About justice and virtue.

P. 438. D. If any one embraces all the virtues with earnestness and sobriety, he is a king, even though he may be in a private station.

Aboiit voluntary and involuntary sins.

P. 526. B. As to sin intentionally is unjust, so to sin unintentionally and out of ignorance is not at once justifiable, but perhaps it is something between the two, that is between righteousness and unrighteousness, and is of what some persons call an indifferent character, for no sin can be an act of righteousness.

About initiation into divine mysteries.

P. 533. C. It is not lawful to speak of the sacred mysteries to the uninitiated.

About the sea.

P. 551. D. It is proper to marvel at the sea, by means of which countries requite one another for the good things which they receive from each other, and by which they receive what they are in need of, and export what they have a suDerfiuity of

About equality.

P. 556. D. To give equal things to unequal people is an action of the greatest injustice.

About physicia?is and medical science.

A good physician would not be inclined to apply every kind of salutary medicine at once and on the same day to a patient, as he would know that by such a course he would be doing him more harm than good, but he would measure out the proper opportunities, and then give saving medicines in a seasonable manner ; and he would apply different remedies at different times, and so he would bring about the patient's restoration to health by gentle degrees.

About opportunity.

P. 563. C. Say what is right, and at the time when it is right, and you will not hear what is not right. Ibid. It is well to economise time.

About mysteries.

P. 576. D. Chatterers divulging what ought to be kept buried in silence, do in a mariner from a disease of the tongue pour forth into people's ears things which are not worthy of being heard.

Aboiit people who are in a state of pupillage.

P. 613. D. To inquire and put questions is the most useful of habits with a view to acquiring instruction.

Ibid. He who hungers and thirsts after knowledge, and who is eager to learn what he does not know, abandoning all other objects of care, is eager to become a disciple, and day and night watches at the doors of the houses of wise men.

Ibid. For any one to know that he is ignorant is a piece of wisdom, just as to know that one has done wrong is a piece of righteousness.

About reproach.

P. 630. C. Never reproach any one with misfortune, for nature is impartial, and the future is uncertain ; lest if you yourself should fall into similar misfortunes, you should be found to be convicted and condemned by your own conscience.

About a proper constitution. P. 657. C. It is advantageous to submit to one's betters.

About a blameable constitution. From the fifth book of the Essays on Genesis.

P. 658. E. A shameless look, and a high head, and a continual rolling of the eyes, and a pompous strut in walking, and a habit of blushing at nothing, however discreditable, are signs of a most infamous soul, which stamps the obscure topics of the reproaches which belong to itself upon the visible body.

About familiarity and habituation.

P. 681. D. A change of all kinds of circumstances at once to the opposite direction is very harsh, especially when the existing powers are established by the length of time that they have lasted.

About correction.

P. 683. D. It is useful to be warned by the misfortunes of others.

Ibid. Punishment very often warns and corrects those who do wrong ; but if it fails to do so to them, at all events it corrects the bystanders, for the punishments of others improve most people, from fear lest they should suffer similar evils.

About associating with wicked men.

P. 692. A. Associations with wicked men are mischievous, and very often the soul against its will receives the impression of the insane wickedness of one's associates.

About wisdom.

About haughty men.

P. 693. E. Self-conceit, as the proverb of the ancients has it, is the eradication of all improvement, for the man who is full of self-conceit is incapable of improvement.

Self-conceit is by nature an unclean tiling.

About natural things. P. 711. C. As it is difficult to inoculate anything in a

248 PHILO JUB^lUS.

manner contrary to nature, and to introduce anything into nature which does not belong to it, so likewise is it hard to change things which are of such and such a nature from that nature, and to restrain them ; for it has been well said by some one, everything is vain if nature sets herself against it.

About man. From the Questions arising in Genesis.

P. 748. A. What is the meaning of the expression, " until"* thou return to the dust from which thou wast taken ? For man was not formed of the dust alone, but also of the divine Spirit ; but since he did not continue in an unchanged condition, he neglected the divine command, and cutting off that constitution which imitated the heaven from his better part, he made himself over wholly to the earth ; for if he had been a lover of virtue, which is immortal, he would beyond all question have received heaven for his inheritance, but since what he sought was pleasure, by means of which the death of the soul is brought upon mankind, he became appropriated to the earth.

About Adam. From the Questions arising in Genesis.

P. 748. B. " And God brought all the animals to Adam, to see what he would call them;"t for God does not doubt, but since he has given mind to man, the first born and most excellent of his creatures, according to which he, being endowed with knowledge, is by nature enabled to reason ; he excites him, as an instructor excites his pupil, to a display of his powers, and he contemplates the most excellent offspring of his soul. And, again, he visibly by the example of this man gives an outline of all that is voluntary in us, looking with disfavour on those who affirm that everything happens through necessity, by which some men must be influenced, he on that account commanded man to take upon himself the regulation of these tbings. And this is an employment peculiarly fitting for man, as being endowed with a very high degree of knowledge and most surpassing prudence, the giving of names to the animals being suited to him not only as being wise, but also as being the first nobly born creature.

For it was fitting that he should be the founder of the

human race, and also the king of everything that is born of the earth, and that he should have this as an especial honour of his own, that, as he was the first who had any acquaintance with the animals, he might also be the first inventor and pronouncer of their names ; for it would have been absurd for them to be left without names, and subsequently to have names given to them by some younger man, to the honour and glory of the elder.

And when Adam saw the figure of his wife, as the prophet says, and that it had been produced not by any connexion, nor out of a woman, as human'beings in after times were produced, but that she was as it were a nature on the borders between these two kinds, like a graft from a shoot of another vine taken off and grafted into a second one, on which account he says, " For this cause a man shall leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave to his wife, and they two shall become one flesh ;"* in saying which he used a most gentle expression, which was at the same time most perfectly true, meaning that they would be united by sympathy in their griefs and joys.

From the same book, or else from the last book of the Questions arising in Exodus.

Truly the divine place is inaccessible, and one which is hard to be approached, nor is it given even to the purest intellect to be able to ascend to such a height as to touch it. It is impossible for human nature to behold the face of the living God ; but the word " face " is not used here in its literal meaning, but it is a metaphorical expression, here intended to manifest the purest and simplest form of the living God, since man is not recognized more by anything than by his face, according to his peculiar distinctive qualities and form. For God does not say, " I am not visible in my nature." But who, in fact, is more visible than he who is the Father of all visible things ? And being such with regard to being seen, I am, says he, seen by no mortal man ; and the reason of this is the inability of the created man to behold him.

And that I may not become prolix while weaving in all kinds of arguments, it is inevitable that God must first be created (which is not possible), in order for any one to be able to comprehend God. But if any one dies as to this mortal

250 PHTLO JTJDiEUS.

life, but still lives, having received in exchange a life of immortality, perhaps he will see what he never saw before.

All the different philosophical sects which have flourished in Greece, and in the countries of the barbarians, when investigating the secrets of nature, have never been able to arrive at a clear perception of even the most trivial circumstances ; and a clear proof of this assertion may be found in the disagreements, and dissensions, and contentions of those of each sect who are seeking to establish their own opinions, and to overthrow those of their adversaries. And the households of those who have been contending for the predominance of this and that sect, have been the causes of universal wars, blinding the human mind by their contradictory quarrels, which might otherwise have been able to see the truth, and fighting hard about what doctrines ought to be abandoned and what ought to be preserved.

Now he who desires to form to himself a conception of the most excellent of all beings, ought in the first place to stand firm in his mind, being steadfastly fixed in one opinion, and not varying or wandering in different directions. And in the next place, he ought to take his stand upon nature, and upon solid grounds, and to abandon all barren and corruptible things, for if anything of a somewhat effeminate character approach him, he will be disappointed of his object, and he will be unable, even if he exert the most acute faculties of sight imaginable, to behold the uncreated God ; so that he will become blind before he sees him, on account of the brilliancy of his beams and the flood of light which distils therefrom. Do you not see that the power of fire in the case of those who stand at a measured distance from it affords light to them, but it burns those who approach too near ? Take care that you do not suffer such an injury as this in your mind, and lest an extravagant desire of an impossible object destroy you.

About those who are governed. Out of the first book of the Questions in Genesis. P. 749. E. As pillars support whole houses, so also the power of God supports the whole world, and the best and most God-loving section of the human race.

Out of the Questions in Genesis. P. 750. C. If any one is either in any house, or village, or

city, or nation, who is a lover of wisdom, it is absolutely inevitable that that house or city should be the better for his existence in it, for a virtuous man is a common good to all men, bestowing on them advantages proceeding from himself as from a prepared store.

About people who carry news, and act as intermediate

bearers of answers.

From the Questions arising in Exodus.

P. 751. B. The influx of evils agitates and disturbs the soul, enveloping it in a giddiness which darkens its perceptions, and compels it to suffer that power of sight which by nature was pre-eminent, but which by habit has become blinded, to be obscured.

Ibid. There is nothing so opposite to and inconsistent with the most holy powers of God as injustice.

About the sinner and offender. From the Questions arising in Genesis.

P. 751. C. Never to err in any point whatever is the greatest blessing ; but when one has erred, to repent is next akin to it, as a younger good, if one may say so, by the side of an elder, for there are some persons who exult in the offences which they have committed as if they had done good actions, though they are in reality afflicted with a disease difficult to be cured, or I sould rather say incurable.

About its being impossible to escape from God. From the last book of Questions arising in Exodus.

P. 752. A. He contains all things, while yet he is himself contained by nothing ; for as place is that which contains bodies, and that to which they flee for refuge, so also the divine reason contains the universe and is that which has completed it.

About truth and faithful emdence. From the second book of the Questions in Exodus.

P. 754. C. By some lawgivers the practice of giving hearsay evidence has been forbidden, on the ground that the truth is established by the eye-sight, but falsehood by hearing.

252 PHILO JUD^tJS.

About quiet and ease. From the fourth book of the Questions in Genesis.

The wise man is desirous of peace and leisure, that he may have time for meditation on heavenly things.

From the fifth book.

Ibid. E. For thus the lover of wisdom never unites with any rash person, even though he may be closely united to him by blood ; nor does he ever consent to dwell with a wicked man, being separated from the multitude by his reasoning powers, on account of which he is said not to be a fellow voyager, or a fellow citizen, or a companion of such men.

Ibid. The wise man is a sojourner and a settler, having come as an emigrant from a life of confusion and disorder to one suitable to peaceful and happy men.

About the fearful expulsion. From the first book of the Questions in Genesis. P. 772. B. But the essence of the angels is spiritual, but they are very often made to resemble the appearance of men, being transformed on any emergencies which arise.

From the second book of the same Questions.

Ibid. All the powers of God are winged, being always eager and striving for the higher path which leads to the Father.

About heretics. From the first book of the Questions in Exodus. P. 774. B. All those who have stumbled, being unable to proceed with upright feet, go on slowly, being fatigued a long time before they come to their journey's end ; so also the soul is hindered from proceeding successfully on the path which leads to piety if it has previously fallen in with any of the byeroads of wickedness, for they are great hindrances to it, and the -causes of its stumbling, by means of which the mind becoming lame, proceeds too slowly on the road, according to nature ; and this road, according to nature, is that which ends at the Father of the universe.

From the same book.

The contentious investigations which men enter into about the virtues of God, improve the intellect and tram it in most

pleasant labours, which are also most beneficial to it, and especially when men do not (as those of the present day do) disguise themselves under a false appellation, and contend for the doctrines in appearance only, but do, in an honest and true heart, seek out truth in connection with knowledge.

From the second book of the same treatise.

not being more anxious to display melody and

harmony in their voices than in their minds ; the eloquence of the wise man does not display its beauty in words only, but in the matters which it proves by its words.

From the last book of the Questions in Exodus. Those men who apply themselves to the study of the holy scriptures ought not to cavil and quibble at syllables, but ought first to look at the spirit and meaning of the nouns and verbs used, and at the occasions on which and the manners in which each expression is used ; for it often happens that the same expressions are applied to different things at different times; and, on the contrary, opposite expressions are at different times applied to the same thing with perfect consistency.

From the Questions in Genesis.

Those men act absurdly who judge of the whole from a part, instead of, on the contrary, forming their estimate of a part from their knowledge of the whole ; for this is the more proper way to form one's opinion of anything, whether it be a body or a doctrine ; therefore the divine code of laws is, in a manner, a united creature, which one must regard in all its parts and members at once with all one's eyes, and one must contemplate the meaning and sense of the whole scripture with accuracy and clearness, not disturbing its harmony nor dissevering its unity ; for the parts will have a very different appearance and character if they are once deprived of their union.

From the fourth book of the same treatise.

Let there then be a law against all those who profess to look on what is venerable and divine, in any other than a respectful and holy spirit, inflicting punishment on their blindness.

From the second book of the Questions in Exodus. P. 775. There is nothing either more pleasant or more

deserving of respect than to serve God, whose power is superior to that of the mightiest sovereign ; and it appears to me that the greatest kings* have also been chief priests, showing, by their actions, that it is right for those who are the masters of other men nevertheless to serve the servants of God.

About a Icing not being greatly respected. From the first book of the Questions in Genesis.

Ibid. E. No foolish man is a king even though he be invested with supreme power by sea and land, but he only is a king who is a virtuous and God-loving rr.an, even though he may be deprived of those supplies and revenues, by means of which kings in general are strengthened in their sovereignty ; for as a rudder, or a collection of drugs, or a flute, or a harp, are all superfluities to a man who has no knowledge of the art of steering, or medicine, or music, because he is not able to employ auy one of them to the purpose for which it is made, while they may be said to be excellently adapted to and to be very seasonable for a pilot, or a physician, or a musician ; so also, since kingcraft is an art, and the best of arts, we must look upon him who does not know how to exert it as a private individual ; and as the man who does know how to exert it well as the only king.

About the stable and unstable man. From the Questions in Genesis.

P. 776. E. A facility of change must of necessity belong to man, by reason of the unsteadiness of external circumstances. Accordingly we thus oftentimes, after we have chosen friends, and have associated with them for some time, though we have nothing to accuse them of, turn away from them with aversion as enemies.

About those who change their minds and blame themselves.

Caius, as he was ignorant of the greatness of the cause, that he should never fall into death, suffered a more simple punishment ; but his imitator, not being able to take refuge in the plea of ignorance, is subjected to a double punishment ; on which account Lamech shall be avenged seventy and seven fold, for the reason above mentioned, according to

■which he was the second offender who had not thought fit to take warning from the punishment of him who had offended before, and he clearly receives his punishment, being a more simple one ; as in numbers the units have a highly multiplied power, resembling that of the decades, such as now Lamech, changing his mind, denounces against himself.

From the same book of the same author.

P. 777. To be aware of what one has done amiss, and to blame one's self, is the part of a righteous man ; but to be insensible to such things causes still more grievous evils to the soul, and the conduct of wicked men.

About the courage of a woman. From Philo, from the Questions arising in Exodus.

Ibid. B. It is said by men who have applied themselves to the study of natural philosophy, that the female is nothing else but an imperfect male.

About the oracles of God.

The words of Philo, out of the second book of his Questions arising in Genesis.

P. 782. A. It is not lawful to divulge the sacred mysteries to the uninitiated until they are purified by a perfect purification ; for the man who is not initiated, or who is of moderate capacity, being unable either to hear or to see that nature which is incorporeal and appreciable only by the intellect, being deceived by the visible sight, will blame what ought not to be blamed. Now, to divulge sacred mysteries to uninitiated people, is tha act of a person who violates the laws of the privileges belong ing to the priesthood.

Ibid. B. It is absurd that there should be a law in cities that it is not lawful do divulge sacred mysteries to the uninitiated, but that one may speak of the true rites and ceremonies which lead to piety and holiness to ears full of folly. All men must not partake of all things, nor of all discourses, above all, of such as are sacred ; for those that desire to be admitted to a participation in such things, ought to have many qualifications beforehand. In the first place, what is the greatest and most important, they ought to have deep feelings of piety towards

the only true and living God, and correct notions of holiness, avoiding all inextricable errors which perplex so many about images and statues, and in fact about any erections whatever, and about unlawful ceremonies, or illicit mysteries.

In the second place, they must be purified with all holy purifications, both in soul and body, as far as it is allowed by their national laws and customs. In the third place, they must give credible evidence of their entering into the common joy, so that they may not, after having partaken of the sacred food, like intemperate youths, be changed by satiety and overabundance, becoming like drunken men; which is not lawful.

About evil-doers. The words of Philo, out of the Questions arising in Exodus. P. 782. D. The man who lives in wickedness, bears about destruction within him, since he has living with him that which is both treacherous, designing, and hostile to him. For the conscience of the wicked man is alone a sufficient punishment to him, inflicting cowardice on his soul from its own inmost feelings, as it feared blows.

Ibid. The life of the wicked man is subject to pain and sorrow, and full of fear ; and in everything which it does according to the outward senses, it is mingled with fear and grief

About monks who break thevr vows. The words of Philo, from the Questions arising in Exodus. P. 784. C. The reasoning of some persons is very rapidly satiated, who, though they have been borne upwards on wings for a little while, yet do presently return back again ; not so much flying upwards, says Philo, as being dragged down again to the lowest depths of hell. But happy are they who do not draw back.

Ibid. Before now, some persons who have tasted happiness, being very speedily satiated, after they have given hopes of their being in health, have fallen back into the same disease as before.

From the same author, out of the Questions arising in Genesis. P. 784. D. To commit perjury is impious and mischievous.

About good friends.

The words of Philo, out of the first book of the Questions arising

P. 788. I. We ought to look upon those men as our friends -who are inclined to assist us, and to requite our kindnesses with kindness, even if they are destitute of power ; for friendship is a thing which is seen more in moments of necessity, than in a steady conjunction or union of dispositions. So that in the case of each person who unites with another in an association of friendship, one may apply the expression of Pythagoras to him, and say, " A friend is a second I."

About the mercies of God.

The words of Philo, out of the first book of the Questions arising

P. 789. A. When the fruits of these crops which are raised from seed are in a state of perfection, they receive the beginnings of the generation of trees in order that the mercies of God may last for ever, and then that one continually succeeding the other, and connecting ends with beginnings and beginnings with ends, they may be in reality never ending.

From the second book of the same treatise. Ibid. The mercies of God give us not only what is necessary, but also all such things as conduce to a more excessive and liberal enjoyment of life.

FRAGMENTS FROM A MONKISH MANUSCRIPT.

About man : to show that God when he made him endowed him with free will.

It is said to you, O noble man, who live in obedience to the divine precepts, endeavour with all thy might not only to preserve the gifts which you have received unimpaired and unalloyed, but also think them worthy of all imaginable honour and regard, as being endowed with free will and independent power, so that he who has committed them to your charge may have no reason to find fault with you for having neglected to take proper care of them ; and the Creator of the world has

VOL. IV. s

entrusted to your care to employ them according to your own deliberative purpose, a soul, and speech, and the outward senses. Therefore, those men who receive these gifts in a proper spirit, and who preserve them for him who has bestowed them on them, have kept their intellect carefully in such a way that it shall never think of anything else than of God and his virtues; and their speech in such a manner that with unwearied mouth it shall honour the Father of the universe with praises and hymns ; and their outward senses in such a way that after they have represented to themselves the whole of the world which is perceptible to those senses, namely, the heaven and the earth, and the natures which are between those two, they may relate what they have seen in a pure and guileless manner to the soul.

About people who are governed.

The words of Philo, from the fourth book of hia Allegorical Interpretation of the Sacred Laws.

If you take away their resources of wealth from politicians, you will find nothing left but empty arrogance devoid of sense, for as long as there is an abundant supply of external good things, wisdom and presence of mind appear also to attend them, but when that plenty is taken away all appearance of wisdom is taken away at the same time.

About the best men. From the same author, in his Treatise on Drunkenness.

Good men, to speak somewhat metaphorically, are of more value than whole nations, since they support cities and constitutions as buttresses support large houses.

If it depended on wicked men, no city would ever enjoy tranquillity ; but states continue free from seditious troubles on account of the righteousness of one or two men who live in them, whose virtue is a remedy for the diseases of war, because God, who loves mankind, grants this effect as a reward to those who are virtuous and honourable, so that they should not only benefit themselves, but all who are near them.

There is no place upon earth more sacred than the mind of

a wise man, while all the virtues hover around like so many stars.

About things which are uncertain and unknown to us.

The comprehension of the future does not belong to the nature of man.

All things are not known to the mortal race..

God alone is acquainted with the ultimate results of things.

About evil report.

Quiet, which is free from danger, is better than words the object of which is only to give pleasure.

About self-satisfied people, <&c.

The lawgiver says, " You shall not do all the things which we will do here this day,* every one doing that which is pleasant in his own sight," by which words he declares as loudly as possible that there is no evil which may not be produced by selfishness and self-sufficiency, which must be eradicated from the mind as unholy feelings. Let no one embrace that which is pleasing to himself rather than that which is agreeable to nature, for the one is found to be the cause of mischief and the other the cause of benefit.

Those who do everything for their own sake alone practise selfishness, which is the greatest of evils, which produces unsociability, want of fellowship, unfriendliness, injustice, impiety, for nature has made man not like those beasts which love solitude, but like the gregarious beasts which live together like the most sociable of all creatures, that he may live not to himself alone, but also to his father, and to his mother, and to his brethren, and to his wife, and to his children, and to all his other relations and friends, and to those of the same borough as himself, and to those of the same tribe, and to * Deuteronomy zii. 28.

his native country, and to his fellow countrymen, and to all mankind, and moreover to the different parts of the universe, and to the whole world, and much more to the Father and Creator of the world, for he must be (if at least he is really endowed with reason) sociable, loving the world, and loving God, that he may also be beloved by God.

About God being incomprehensible. From the first book of the Questions arising in Exodus.

There are thousands and thousands, I do not say only of important matters, but also of those which appear to be most trivial, which escape the human intellect.

No one may so far yield to unreasonable folly as to boast that he has seen the invisible God.

About the doctrine that God has made angels to be guardia7is of us.

The words of Philo, from the first book of the Questions arising in

Genesis.

As pillars support whole houses, so also do the divine powers support the whole world, and that most excellent and Godloving race of mankind.

About avoiding sin. From the treatise on the Giants. I think it absolutely impossible that no part of the soul should become tainted, not even the outermost and lowest parts of it, even if the man appears to be perfect among men.

About slowness of counsel. Slow counsel is profitless, and change of purpose in extremities is mischievous.

About heretical teachers, <&c. From the same book. A teacher of a good and virtuous disposition, even if he sees his pupils at first stiff-necked by nature, does not despair of producing in them a change for the better ; but, like a good physician, he does not apply a remedy at once at the first moment of the disease attacking the patient, but he gives

nature time that it may recede a little, so that he may first make ready the path to safety, and then apply healthful and salutary remedies. And in the same manner does the virtuous man apply the arguments and doctrines of philosophy. If, when a pupil is first introduced to you, and first comes to learn of you, you hasten to eradicate all his ignorance at once, and attempt to introduce every kind of knowledge in a lump, you will produce the contrary effect to that which you desire, for it will not be likely that such an eradication, having taken place all in a moment, will continue effectual, nor that the pupil will be able at once to contain such an abundant influx and overflow of instruction ; but being exceedingly perplexed and troubled, he will resist both these operations, that of eradicating one thing and that of introducing another ; but the system of taking away his ignorance with gentleness and moderation, and of, in the same manner, gently instilling wisdom into the mind, will be the causes of admitted advantage.

About people ivho meditate and design mischief. The words of Philo, from bis treatise on Things Improperly Named. The ordinary production of wickedness enslaves the mind, even if it has not as yet produced any perfect fruit ; for it is, as the proverb says, washing a brick, or taking up water in a net, to try and eradicate wickedness out of the soul of man. For " behold," says Moses, " with what designs the minds of all men are impressed."* And he speaks truly, for he does not say, what designs are attached to and adapted to it, but that which has been considered with care and deliberation is also explained with accuracy, and this too not slowly and with difficulty, but from man's earliest youth, or as one may almost say, from his very cradle, as if it were a part of him, kept in continual exercise.

About cowardly and wavering people.

Those who are unmanly from an innate effeminacy, falling down of their own accord before they meet with any opposition, are a disgrace and ridicule to themselves.

"Wickedness in a foolish man has a twin offspring, for the

foolish man is wavering and hesitating, mingling considerations together which ought not to be mingled, and jumbling and confusing what ought to be kept distinct, having as manycolours in his soul as a viper has in his body, and polluting even his sound thoughts with those which cause trouble and death.

The thoughts of a bad man are one thing, and his words another, and his actions indeed are many, but they are all inconsistent and at variance one with another, for he does not say what he thinks, and he has decided on the contrary of what he affirms, and he does things which are not consistent with his original designs, so that, to speak truly, one may say that the life of the wicked man is a life of enmity.

About distinctness. That which is not distinct is unsuited to a free man, beins the most shameful product of folly and haughtiness ; for as distinctness in everything that is to be done is a mai'k of acuteness and wisdom, and deserves honour and praise, so also an absence of shame is a sign of folly and infamy, on which account the other definition which you disregard, classifies a man who is afflicted with this disease thus, saying, he is impious who does not know how to respect the face of an honourable man, nor to rise up in the presence of an elder,* nor to guide his own steps in the right way.

About those who serve God.

The servants of virtuous men submit to voluntary obedience to God, for they are not servants to human caprices, but to wise men ; and he who is the servant of wisdom may justly be said to be also the servant of God.

About just men. An irreconcileable and endless war is canied on by the

Juvenal speaks of this as a custom of the ancient Romans —

Crodebant hoc grande nefas, et morte plandum, Si juvenis vetulo non assurrexerat ; et si Barbato cuicumque puer.

atheists against the godly, so that they threaten them even with slavery.

About justice. Justice, ahove all things, conduces to the safety both of mankind and of the parts of the world, earth and heaven.

About the judgments of God. It is good to begin every day with divine and holy employments, and after that to proceed to the necessary duties of life. On this account God has commanded us* to take care to obey his commandments, and especially at the first moment of the dawn, as soon as we are risen, to pay our adoration to Him, that their offerings to God may precede every human occupation, having the recollection of God for their prompter and leader.

Every soul which piety fertilises with its own mysteries is necessarily awake for all holy services, and eager for the contemplation of those things which are worth being seen, for this is the feeling of the soul at the great festival, and this is the true season of joy.

About the difference between God and man. The things of creation are far removed from the uncreated God, even though they are brought into close proximity following the attractive mercies of the Saviour.

About bold and brave men. The words of Philo, from his treatise about the Giants. It is a sign of courage not to be easily alarmed by tho terrors of death, and to" be full of cheerful confidence in dangers, and to be of valiant hardiness amid disasters, and to prefer dying with honour to being saved disgracefully, and to wish to be the cause of victory ; and a happy boldness, and a cheerfulness of soul, and fortitude, are the atttendants on a manly spirit.

Deuteronomy vi. 7.

36'i PHILO JUD^EUS.

About equality.

As an equality of measurement is the cause of the most

perfect blessings, so also a want of measure is the cause of the

greatest evils, as it dissolves that most useful bond of equality.

About drunkenness. Inequality is a grievous thing and the cause of differences, just as equality is free from all annoyances and contributes to unite men for advantageous ends.

From the same autnor. Obedience to the law and equality are the seeds of peace, and the causes of safety and continued durability ; but inequality and covetousness are excitements to war, and dissolvers of all existing things.

About evil-doers. Those things which chastise the first, are, if men are wise, preventatives of the second.

About the eye and sight.

The words of Philo, from the treatise about the Creation of the World.

The outward senses resemble windows; for through them, as through windows, the comprehension of the objects of the outward senses enters into the mind, and again through them the mind goes out to investigate such objects. But the sight is a part of these windows, that is to say, of the outward senses, since above all others it is akin to the soul, because it is nearly connected with the most beautiful of all things, namely light, and is a servant of divine things ; and, indeed, that is the sense which first opened the way to philosophy. For when the eye had beheld the motions of the sun and moon, and the periodical revolutions of the stars, and the unvarying motions of the whole host of heaven, and the indescribable order and harmony of the whole universe, and the one unerring Creator of the world, it then related what it had seen to reason, as having the supreme authority ; and reason, having beheld with a still more acutely piercing eye both these

things, and things of a still more sublime character in their appearance and species, and the great cause of all things, it then immediately arrived at a due conception of God, and of creation, and of providence ; considering that the whole nature of all things was not brought into existence of its own accord, but that of necessity it had a creator, and a father, and a guide, and a governor, who also created it, and who also preserves everything which he has created.

About contentment. The words of the same author. If you have a great deal of wealth, take care and do not be carried away by its overflow ; but endeavour to take hold of some dry ground, in order to establish your mind with proper firmness ; and this will be the proper exertion of justice and fairness. And if you should have abundant supplies of all the things requisite for the indulgence of those passions which lie beneath the belly, be not carried away by such plenty, but oppose to them a saving degree of contentedness, taking in this way dry ground to stand upon instead of an absorbing quicksand.

By the same author.

One should practise being contented with a little, for this is being near God ; but the contrary habit is being very far from him.

About faith in and piety towards God. What can be a real sacrifice except the piety of a soul devoted to the love of God ? whose grateful feelings are made immortal by God, having conferred on them an immortal duration like that of the sun and the moon, and the whole world.

About wicked and impious men. The hopes of wicked men are unstable, as they expect a good fate, but suffer a contrary destiny of which they arc worthy.

About a bad conscience.

The words of Philo, from his treatise on Men and Things which are Improperly Named.

Who is there who does wrong who is not convicted by his

own conscience as if he were in a court of justice, even though no man correct him ?

About advisers.

The words of Philo, from the Questions in Genesis.

Since the mind of those who have not studied philosophy is

blind with respect to many of the circumstances of life, one

must take those who do see the character of affairs for one's

guides.

About hasty talkers. He who has not shame or fear for his companions, has an unbridled mouth and a licentious tongue.

Aboiit perfection. Perfection and an absence of deficiency are found in God alone. But deficiency and imperfection exist in every man. For man is taught, even if he be the wisest of his race, by some other man, and he knows nothing without being taught by his own nature. And if one man has more knowledge than another, still he has it not naturally, but because of instruction which he has received.

About those who think lowlily of themselves. These things are proved to be most completely natural, that the descent of the soul is its elation by means of self-conceit, and that its ascent and elevation is its return from arrogance.

It is desirable to eradicate self-conceit, which is the friend of endurance, and prudence, and justice,* and also to destroy overbearing pride ; for it is no small proof and exercise of folly to study virtue in an illegitimate manner.

If you are puffed up by glory and authority so as to desire great things, then remember, like the skilful pilot of a ship, to

It is evident that there is great corruption in this and the next sentence.

take in your sails, that you may not be carried away into absurd conduct.

About sleep.

Sleep, according to the prophet, is a trance, not indeed in accordance with insanity, but proceeding from a relaxation of the outward senses and the retreat of reason ; for at that time the outward senses cease from attaching themselves to their proper objects, and the mind is quiet, neither being any longer under the influence nor affording any motion to them, and they, being in consequence cut off from any energy because they are separated from the objects which are perceptible to them, are dissolved in a state of motionless inactivity.

Very naturally some who have been wise enough to arrive at correct notions of the truth, have described sleep as a thing to teach us to meditate upon death, and a shadow and outline of the resurrection which is hereafter to follow, for it bears in itself visible images of both conditions, for it removes the same man from his state of perfection and brings him back to it.

About promises, <&c.

It is better absolutely never to make any promise at all than not to assist another willingly, for no blame attaches to the one, but great dislike on the part of those who are less powerful, and intense hatred and long enduring punishment from those who are more powerful, is the result of the other line of conduct.

About haughty men, <£c.

From the first book of the Sacred Allegory of the Holy Laws.

Some persons say that the last thing which the wise man

puts off is the tunic of vain glory, for even if a man gets the

mastery over his other passions, still he is inclined by nature

to be influenced by glory and the praises of the multitude.

Self-conceit is an impure thing by nature.

About promises, &c.

To give thanks to God is intrinsically right, but not to do so to him in the first place, and not to begin with the first reasoris for gratitude, is blameable, for it is not right to give the chief honour to the creation, and the inferior honour to God, who is the giver of all things in the creation ; and indeed that is a most culpable division, inasmuch as it is laying down a certaiu disorder of order.

About envtj. Envy naturally attaches itself to whatever is great.

About industrious people. The words of the same author.

The most perfect and greatest of all good things are usually the result of laborious exercise and energetic vigorous labour

It is absurd for a man who is in the pursuit of honours to flee from labours by which honours are acquired.

About the soul and the mind.

"What is the meaning of the expression, "You shall not eat the flesh in the blood of the soul?"* God appears by this expression to intend to show that the blood is the essence of the soul, that is to say, of the soul endowed with the outward senses, not the soul spoken of in the most excellent sense of the word, that is to say, as far as it is endued with reason and intellect ; for there are three divisions of the soul, one part being nutritious, a second being endued with the outward senses, and the third being endued with reason. Accordingly the divine Spirit is the essence of the rational portion, according to the sacred historian of the creation of the world, for he says that "God breathed into his face the breath of life."f But of that part which is endued with the outward, senses, and which has the revivifying power, blood is the essence, for he says in another place that " the soul of all flesh is the blood ;"£ * Genesis ix. -1. t Genesis ii. 9. J Deuteronomy xii. 23.

but what is connected with the flesh is the outward sense and the passions, and not the mind and the intellect; not but what that expression, " in the blood of the soul," also indicates that the soul is one thing and the body another. So that in real truth the breath is the essence of the soul, but it has not any place of itself independently of the blood, but it resembles and is combined with blood.

About the assistance of God.

The words of Philo, from the fourth book of his treatise on the Allegories contained in the Sacred Laws.

The extremity of happiness is the assistance of God, for there can be no such thing as want when God gives his aid.

About the creation of the world.

From the same author, from the first book of the Questions arising in Genesis.

It is impossible that the harmony, and arrangement, and reason, and analogy, and that all the great accord and real happiness which we see existing in the world can have been originated by themselves, for it follows inevitably that these things must have had a creator, and a father, and a regulator and governor, who generated them in the first place, and who now preserves what he has generated.

About the church of God. God wishing to send down from heaven to the earth an image of his divine virtue, out of his compassion for our race, that it might not be destitute of a more excellent portion, and that he might thus wash off the pollutions which defile our miserable existence, so full of all dishonour, established his church among us.

Bbout seeking God.

From the same author, from the last book of the Questions arising

The one most powerful relaxation of the soul leads to the

sacred love of the one living God, teaching mankind to take

God as its guide in all their plans, and words, and actions.

The extremity of happiness is to rest uucnangeaDiy and immovably on God alone.

About the last day.

The words of Philo, from the second book of the Questions arising

The stars are turned round and revolve in a regular circle, some proceeding on in the same manner through the whole heaven, and others have special eccentric motions of their own.

About the detestation of wickedness felt by God.

The words of Philo, from the second book of the Questions arising in Exodus.

Some men think that repentance appears at times to take possession of God on account of the oaths which he has sworn, but they do not form correct notions ; for apart from the fact that the Deity does not change, neither the expression, " God repented," nor that, " And it grieved him at the heart,"* is indicative of repentance, for the Deity is unchangeable ; but they only show the character of the pure intellect which is now deeply meditating on the cause for which he created man upon the earth.

By the same author, from the same book. There is no hesitation and no envy in God ; but he often uses expressions indicative of hesitation or of uncertainty from a reference to man, who is susceptible of such feelings ; for as I have often said, there are altogether two supreme sources ; in the one case God does not speak as man speaks, in the other he instructs man as a man instructs his son, the former being a sign of his power, the second of the way in which he teaches and guides man.

A bout promises.

The words of Philo, from the la3t book of the Questions arising

He who does not offer to God first fruits of his own free will does not really offer first fruits at all, even if he brings everything which is great, with a most royal abundance of treasure ; for the real first fruits consist not in the things offered, but in the pious disposition of him who offers them.

About the mildness of God and his love for mankind. The words of Philo, from the Questions arising in Exodus. The mercies of God do always outstrip justice, for the work

which he has chosen for himself is that of doing good, and the task of punishing follows that ; and it is common, when great evils are about to arise, for an abundance of great and numerous blessings to happen first.

FRAGMENTS PRESERVED BY ANTONIUS.

Ser. I. The virtues alone know how to regulate the affairs of men. The contemplation of virtue is exceedingly beautiful, and actions according to it, and the exercise of it, are desirable above all things.

Ser. II. If you wish to have a good reputation in a twofold manner, then honour exceedingly those who are doing well, and reprove those who are doing ill.

Ser. VIII. When you are entreated to pardon offences, pardon willingly those who have offended against you, because indulgence given in requital for indulgence, and reconciliation with our fellow servants, is a means of averting the divine anger.

Ser. IX. The virtuous man is a lover of his race, and he is merciful and inclined to pardon, and never bears ill will towards any man whatever, but thinks it right to surpass in doing good rather than in injuring.

Ibid. What is beautiful is then beautiful, when a man has no need of the assistance of another, but when he contains in himself all the signs of excellence as his own.

Ser. X. It is well that the worse should always follow the better, on account of the hope of improvement.

Ser. XI. One ought to call a city, and a country, and a house, happy,

272 PIIILO JUDiEUS.

when they contain a virtuous man : and one ought to call those miserable, when they have no such man within them.

Ser. XVI.

Those who are tyrannical in their natures, but without power, make their designs succeed by treachery.

Ser. XX. The friendships of the wicked are mischievous, and very often the soul of such men, being influenced by such associations, takes the impressions of downright insanity.

It is not the country which makes men bad, or the city which makes them good, but the habits of living with such and such men.

Ser. XXVIII.

. One need not dread the blow of a weak man, nor the threat of a fool.

Light-minded men, like empty vessels, may easily be taken and moved by their ears.

Ser. XXX.

Nothing that is done can be beautiful without scientific contemplation, for knowledge is the offspring of counsel, but folly is the source of all evils.

Every argument on behalf of justice is superfluous, when those who listen are unanimous in a bad object.

Ser. XXXVIII.

The wicked man disturbs the city, and is eager for the confusion and the disorder of all men and all things within the city; for a desire of interference, and covetousness, and the acts of a demagogue, and the influence with the populace, are looked upon as honours by such a man, and quiet he looks upon with disdain.

Excellence is a thing difficult to find, or rather is absolutely uudiscoverable in a troubled life.

Ser. XLIII.

There is nothing so calculated to cause good will as kind words, on account of good actions.

Ser. XL VII. It is sufficient not to bear witness one's self, but that which

stands in need of the advocacy of another is inadequate to bring conciliation to the mind.

Ser. LII.

Reject with aversion the deceitful words of flatterers, for they, obscuring reason, do not contribute to the truth of things ; for either they praise actions which are deserving of blame, or else they often blame things beyond all praise.

Ser. LVI. Peace is the greatest blessing which no man is able to afford, since this is a divine action.

Ser. LVII.

Behave to your servants in the same manner in which you desire that God should behave to you ; for as we hear them we shall be heard by him, and as we regard them we shall be regarded by him. Let us therefore let our compassion outrun compassion, that we may receive a like requital from him for our mercy to them.

Ser. LXIX.

How great a relief of nature is sleep, it is the image of death, and the rest of the outward senses.

Sleep is one thing only, but the desire of it has many reasons and causes ; I mean from nature, from food, from fate, and perhaps also from excessive and intense fasting, by means of which the flesh, becoming unnerved and deprived of strength, wishes to recover itself for subsequent actions by means of sleep.

As much drinking is called a habit, so is much sleep, and it is difficult to get rid of an inveterate habit.

Ser. LXXIV. Pardon is apt to engender repentance.

Ser. LXXIX.

Shamelessness is the characteristic of a worthless man, and modesty of a virtuous man, but never to feel either ashamed or bold is a mark of one who is slow of comprehension, and who is without the power of giving assent.

VOL. IV. T

Ser. LXXXII.

Since God penetrates invisibly in the region of the soul, let us prepare that region in the best manner that we are able to. or rather that it may be a habitation fit for God, otherwise, without our being aware of it, God will depart and remove to some other abode.

The mind of a wise man is the house of God, and he is called, in an especial manner, the God of all mankind, as the prophet says when speaking of the mind of a wise man, he calls it " that in which God walks,"* as in a palace.

What is visible and actually before us is comprehended by the eyes, but the pure faculty of reason extends even to what is unseen and future.

Ser. LXXXVIT.

God who is merciful by nature will never exonerate from guilt the man who swears falsely for an unrighteous object, as such a man is impure and defiled, even though he may escape the punishments inflicted by men.

Ser. XCIX. Those things which are kept in the dark for a while by envy, are at last released and brought to light.

Ser. CIV.

In his essential character a king is equal to every man, but in the power of his authority and rank he is equal to God who ruleth over all things ; for there is nothing on earth that is higher than he. Therefore it becomes him as being a mortal not to be too much elated, and as being a kind of God not to yield too much to passion ; for if he is honoured as being of the likeness of God, nevertheless he is in some degree entangled in terrestrial and vile dust, by means of which he should learn simolicity and meekness towards all men.

Ser. CXVI. A severe master is best for untractable and foolish servauts ; for they, fearing his threats aud punishments, though against their will, are made to do right by fear.

Ser. CXVIII. It is the greatest praise of a servant to neglect nothing * Leviticus xxvi. 12.

which his master commands, but to attempt with an honest heart to perform in a proper and successful manner, even if it be beyond his power, all that is commanded him with energy and without hesitation.

Ser. CXXIII. '

When once the wife of Philo was asked in an assembly of many women why she alone of all her sex did not wear any golden ornaments, she replied : " The virtue of a husband is a sufficient ornament for his wife."

Ser. CXXX.

The virtues of children are the glory of their fathers. Those who are well acquainted with what is honourable and virtuous, are happy in their children.

Ser. CXXXV.

To drink poison out of a golden goblet, and to take advice from a foolish friend, is the same thing.

New vessels are better than old ones, but old friendship is better than new.

The fruits produced by the earth come once a year ; but those which we derive from friendship are to be gathered on every occasion. Many men select for their friends not those who are the most virtuous, but those who are rich.

Many who appear to be friends are not so, and many who do not appear to be such are so in reality; but it is the part of a wise man to discern both these classes.

Ser. CLII.

Youth which is not willing to work is laying up misfortunes for old age.

Ser. CLVI.

What is bad is, not being punished here, but being worthy of punishment hereafter.

Ser. CXXXV. God has implanted hope in the human race that, having a comfort innate in them, those who have committed errors which are not irremediable may feel their sorrows lightened.

Ser. CLXXXII.

Pleasure appears to be an equable kind of motion, but in reality it botb is and is found to be rougb.

The following Fragments are from an Anonymous Collection in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.

Extracts from Philo. About friends.

A steadiness towards one's friends is a sign of a general stability of disposition, on wbicb account one ought not to form friendship till one has carefully tested the characters of those with whom he proposes to form it ; for not only is the forming of such friendship pleasant, but so also is the feeling that one has not to bear by one's self burdens which oppress the soul, and not to depart from the association ; for he who is the cause of differences in friendship is not known to the generality of men, but he is accustomed to bring common blame upon both parties, and very commonly on the innocent party more than on the guilty one.

Of secret things, you may share with mean persons those which increase your virtue ; but as to those which deteriorate your mind, you must not pursue them, yourself, nor impute them to your friends.

The life of man is like a sea, it is liable to every description of agitation and change, even in the height of prosperity ; for nothing earth-born is firmly established, but all such things are carried about to and fro, like a vessel which is driven about in the sea by contrary winds.

About sin. Let us fear not the diseases which come upon us from without, but those offences on which account diseases come, diseases of the soul rather than of the body.

About pain. Every foolish man is in a strait, being oppressed by covetousness, and love of glory, and desire of pleasure, and things of that sort, which do not allow the mind freedom of motion.

About gluttony.

The sons of the physicians have laid it down as a maxim that regularity is the parent of a healthy condition of the body, paying but little attention to the health of the soul ; but we lay it down that regularity is not only destructive of all diseases of the body, but much more do we recognise the fact that the truest health is that which destroys the passions which injure the soul.

About custom and familiarity. An inveterate habit is more powerful than nature, and little things, if they are not hindered, grow up and increase and become of a large size.

The following Fragments are from an Unpublished Manuscript in the Library of the French King.

From the works of the Hebrew Philo, on Genesis vi. 7. Why is it that God, when he threatens to extirpate mankind, does also destroy the irrational animals ? Because the irrational animals were not originally created designedly for their own sakes, but for the sake of man, and to perform services of which he might be in need ; and when man was destroyed it followed naturally that they should also be destroyed at the same time, when the beings for whose sake they had been created were no longer in existence.

From the same author, on Genesis xvii. 14. The law does not treat any action done involuntarily as guilty, since it even pardons a man who has committed murder unintentionally ; but if a child is not circumcised eight days after its birth, what evil has it done so as to be subjected to the punishment of death? Therefore some persons say that the manner of the punishment is to be referred to its parents, and think that they ought to be punished severely as having neglected the commandments of the law ; and others think that it is by an excess of indignation that God is here represented as inflicting punishment, as far as appearance goes, on the child, in order that this inevitable punishment

may be inflicted on those people of mature age who have violated the law.

Not because the action of circumcision is important in itself, but because if that is neglected the covenant itself is treated with eontempt when the seal by which it is recognised and ratified is not made perfect.

From the same author, on Genesis xix. 23. Why did the sun go forth upon the land when Lot entered into Segor? And he says the very same place is a safety for those who are making progress, and a punishment to those who are inwardly wicked. And again the moment that the sun rises in the beginning of the day it brings with it justice ; wishing to show that the sun, and the day, and the light, and everything else in the world which is beautiful and honourable, are given only to the virtuous and to no worthless man who embraces incurable wickedness.

From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 24 — 27. Having been spies rather than friends under truce, and being prepared for either alternative ; for war if they saw that the other was weak, and for peace if they found him stronger than themselves.

From the same author, on Genesis xxvi. 28, &c. These are the covenants which they made, not to be destroyed as the other nations had been, and the Philistines were at a subsequent period by the Israelites ; whom the holy scriptures call sometimes Canaanites, and sometimes Cappadocians ; but afterwards the Cappadocians emigrated.

From the same author, on Genesis xxvi. 30. Not on account of praise, for the wise man is not attracted by flattery or by any other kind of subserviency, but because he has accepted their repentance.

From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 6, &c.

When he had two sons, the one good and the other guilty, he says that he will bless the guilty one, not becausehe preferred him to the good one, but because he knew that the other one could do right by himself, but that the other was convicted by his own disposition, and had no hope whatever of

salvation except in the prayers of his father ; and if he did not obtain them, then he would be the most miserable of all men.

From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 11, &c. It is proper here to admire also the good will of his mother, who confessed herself willing to take upon herself the cause for his sake, in order that her son might have the honour to which the two were entitled, for she is carried away by her affection for both of them ; for she had feared his father, lest she should be looked upon as imposing on him, and to be filching away the honour to which the other was entitled ; and his mother, lest he should be considered by her as disobedient to her when she urged him vehemently ; on which account he says, with great prudence and propriety, Will not my father curse me ? and I shall be bringing a curse on myself. He had confidence because of the promise of God, which said, " The elder shall serve the younger." But, on the other hand, he feared as a man, lest the blessing of his father, as a just man, should overturn the assertion of God.

From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 30. He is not so indignant at his disappointment in not obtaining the blessings, as at the fact of his brother having been thought worthy of them ; for being of an envious disposition, he regarded his want of success as more desirable than even his own advantage, and he shows this by his great and bitter lamentations, and by his subsequent exclamation, " Bless me now also, 0 my father."

But if he obtained it by fraud, a man will be inclined to say, he was not to be praised. What then does his father say ? " And he shall be blessed." But he appears by what he here says to intimate, in an enigmatical and obscure manner, that it does not follow that every stratagem is blameable, since guardians of the night when they lie in wait for robbers, and generals when they form ambuscades for enemies whom they would not be able to subdue by open force, appear to act rightly : and what are called stratagems proceed on the same principle as the contests of wrestlers, for in these cases too tricks are accounted honourable ; and those who by trickery get the better of their antagonists are thought worthy of the

prize, and of the crown of victory ; so that it is not a charge against a man to say, he has done a thing by trick, but it is rather a panegyric, being equivalent to saying, he has done it skilfully, for the virtuous man does not do anything unskilfully.

From the same author, on Exodus xx. 25. What is the meaning of " thy dagger," and what comes next ? Those who by their nature venture to make improper attempts, and who by their own private endeavours metamorphose the works of nature, defile what ought not to be defiled, for all the things of nature are perfect and complete, and stand in need of no addition.

From the same author, on Exodus xxii. 19.

He shows most evidently that he is a proselyte, inasmuch as he is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, but in the pleasures and appetites, and all the other passions of the soul ; for the Hebrew race was not circumcised in Egypt, but being ill-treated with every imaginable circumstance of ill-treatment by the natural cruelty of the natives of the country to strangers, it nevertheless lived among them with fortitude and patience, and that not more from compulsion than voluntarily, because of the refuge which it possessed in God the saviour, who, sending down his beneficent power, delivered his suppliants from their difficult and apparently inextricable troubles.

On this account Moses adds, " For you know the soul of a proselyte."* Now what is the mind of a proselyte ? a forsaking of the opinions of the worshippers of many gods, and a unioa with those who honour the one God, the Father of the universe. In the second place, some persons call foreigners also proselytes, and those are strangers who have come over to the truth in the same manner with those who have been sojourners in Egypt ; for the one are strangers newly arrived in the country, but the last are strangers also to the customs and laws, but the common name of proselytes is given to both.

From the same author, on Exodus xxii. 22.

It is forbidden to injure a widow and orphan, for these are

under the protection of the especial providence of God, since

they are deprived of their natural protectors and guardians, for

God wills that those who enjoy natural associations should

Exodus xxiii. 10.

make amends to the others from their own abundance of resources.

He says that we must not approach folly or falsehood, either with the ears or with any other of the outward senses, for great injuries are the result of being deceived ; on which account some lawgivers have forbidden any one to give hearsay evidence, since the truth is confirmed by eyesight, but falsehood by hearing.

Poverty by itself claims compassion, in order to correct its deficiencies, but when it comes to judgment, it then has for the arbitrator the law of equity, for justice is a divine and incorruptible thing, on which account it is expressly affirmed in another passage that the judgment of God is just.

Instead of saying leavened bread must not come among the things which are offered, but all things which are brought as a sacrifice or an offering must be unleavened, he intimates two most necessaiy things by an obscure and symbolical expression ; one being to despise pleasure, for leaven is the seasoning of food and not food itself ; and the other being that it is not right for men to be elated, because of being puffed up by vain self-conceit ; for each is a wicked state, and pleasure and selfconceit are both the offspring of one mother, deceit.

The blood of the sacrifices is a proof of a soul making its offerings to God ; and it is not in accordance with the divine law that things which will not unite should be mingled together.

One must suppose that the angel mentioned a little before indicated the voice of God ; for the prophet is the messenger of the Lord, who is the real speaker ; for it is inevitable that he who hears with his ears, that is to say who firmly receives what is said, must also accomplish what is said to him by his actions ; for an action is the proof of what is said ; and he who i?. obedient to what is said, and who performs actions corre- * Deuteronomy xxxii. 4.

sponding to his orders, must of necessity have him who has commanded him for his ally and champion, who in appearance indeed brings assistance to his pupil, but in reality to his own

doctrines and commandments, which his enemies

and adversaries seek to overthrow.

Pillars symbolically mean the doctrines which appear to stand and to be firmly established. Now of the doctrines established in this firm way, some are good, which ought to be stored up and to be fixed in a most lasting manner; but others are open to blame, and such it is desirable should be overthrown. But the expression, " overthrowing you will overthrow, and destroying you will destroy," has such a meaning as the following.

Some men pull down some things as if they meant to raise them again, and destroy some things as if they meant at a future time to re-establish them. But God wills that what has been once destroyed and pulled down shall never be raised or re-established again, but shall be utterly destroyed and for ever, as being contrary to what is good or beautiful.

And we ought to consider that the wasps are a sign of unexpected power coming by the divine mission; which, bringing down its blows from high places so as to reach the extremity of the ear, takes a good aim with all its strokes, and regulating them well will meet with no failure whatever itself.

These things God announced to them, if they obeyed him and kept his commandments. But when they were found to be transgressing and disobedient to the divine law, he then contracted his promise from Dan to Beersheba.

The express command as uttered has a subsequent proposition evident, as all were preserved in safety. But the real meaning is that they all were of one mind in respect of piety and differed in no good thing.

When he speaks of the seventy men he means those with

Moses, and Aaron, and Nadab, and Abihu. And the statement that they did not differ, rather shows that they all equally saw the place where God had stood, than that nothing was left.

From the same authoi-, on Exodus xxiv. 13. He is most manifestly offended with those who being near thought, out of their impiety or folly, that the motions of the Deity were those of peace, and belonging to the act of changing his abode ; for behold he says expressly, not that the God who exists in essence, and who is duly thought of in respect of his existence, came down, but that his glory came down. And the acceptation of the word glory may be twofold ; for in one sense it may signify the presence of his powers, since the power of his army is spoken of as the glory of a king ; and in another sense it may refer to the appearance of him alone, and to the apprehension of his divine glory ; so that an idea of the actual arrival of God may have been created in the minds of those who were present, as if he had come in order to give a most undeniable information to the laws which were about to be given.

But he says that the appearance of the glory of the Lord is very like unto flame, or rather not that it is so, but that it appears like it to the beholders ; since God shows what he chose to appear to be, in order to strike the beholders with amazement without in reality being what he appeared. Accordingly he brings him before the face of the children of Israel, affirming in the plainest language that it was an appearance as of flame, but not a real flame. But as flame consumes every material which is exposed to it, so also when the true conception of God once enters into the soul, it destroys all the heterodox reasonings of impiety, and purifies and sanctifies the whole mind.

Because the generation which had thus quitted its former abode was about to be condemned, and to wander in a state of desolation for forty years, having received innumerable benefits, but having displayed its ingratitude in still more countless instances.

A VOLUME

QUESTIONS, AND SOLUTIONS TO THOSE QUESTIONS, WHICH ARISE IN GENESIS.

BOOK I.

Why does Moses, revolving and considering the creation of the world, say : " This is the book of the generation of heaven and earth, when they were created?"t

1. The expression, "when they were created," indicates as it seems an indeterminate time not accurately described. But this argument will confute those authors who calculate a certain number of years reduced to one, from the time when it is possible that the world may have been created.

And again, the expression : " Tbis is the book of tne generation," is as it were indicative of the book as it follows, which contains an account of the creation of the world ; in which it is intimated that what has been related about the creation of the world is consistent with strict truth.

What is the object of saying, "And God made every green herb of the field, before it was upon the earth, and every grass before it had sprung up?" J

2. He here by these expressions intimates in enigmatical language the incorporeal species ; since the expression, " before it was upon the earth," indicates the arriving at perfection of every herb, and of all seeds and trees. But as to what he says, that " before it had sprung up upon the earth," he had made every green herb, and grass, et csetera, it is plain that the incorporeal species, as being indicative of the others, were created first, in accordance with intellectual nature, which those things which are upon the earth perceptible to the outward senses were to imitate.

What is the meaning of saying : " A fountain went up from the earth, and watered all the face of the earth ?"§

III. But here the question is how it could be that the whole

This work is translated from a Latin version made by Auclier from an Armenian version of the fifth century.

earth was watered by one fountain, not only on account of its size, but also because of the inequality of the montainous and champaign situations ? Unless, indeed, just as the whole force of the king's cavalry is called " the horse," so the whole multitude of the veins of the earth which supply drinkable water, may perhaps be called the fountain, inasmuch as they all bubble up like a fouutain.

And that expression is peculiarly appropriate which says tbat the fountain watered, not the whole earth, but its face ; as in the living being it waters the chief and predominant part (the mind or the countenance). Since that is the most important part of the earth which can be good and fertile and productive, and that is the part which stands in need of the nourishment of 'fountains.

What is the man who was created ? And how is that man distinguished who was made after the image of God ?

4. This man was created as perceptible to the senses, and in the similitude of a Being appreciable only by the intellect ; but he who in respect of his form is intellectual and incorporeal, is the similitude of the archetypal model as to appearance, and he is the form of the principal character ; but this is the word of God, the first beginning of all things, the original species or the archetypal idea, the first measure of the universe.

Moreover, that man who was to be created as a vessel is formed by a potter, was formed out of dust and clay as far as his body was concerned ; but he received his soul by God breathing the breath of life into his face, so that the temperament of his nature was combined of what was corruptible and of what was incorruptible. But the other man, he who is only so in form, is found to be unalloyed without any mixture proceeding from an invisible, simple, and transparent nature.

Why is it said that God breathed into his face the breath of life?

5. In the first place because life is the principal part of the body ; for the rest was only made as a sort of foundation or pedestal, and then life was put upon it as a statue. Besides,

the sense is the fountain of the animal form, and sense resides in the face.

Secondly, man is created to be a partaker not only of a soul but also of a rational soul ; and the head is the temple of the reason, as some writers have called it.

Why is God said to have planted a Paradise ? And for whom ? And what is meant by a paradise ?

6. The word paradise, if taken literally, has no need of any particular explanation ; for it means a place thickly crowded with every kind of tree ; but symbolically taken, it means wisdom, intelligence both divine and human, and the proper comprehension of the causes of things ; since it was proper, after the creation of the world, to establish a contemplative system of life, in order that man, by the sight of the world and of the things which are contained in it, might be able to attain to a correct notion of the praise due to the Father.

And since it was not possible for him to behold nature herself, nor properly to praise the Creator of the universe without wisdom, therefore the Creator planted the outline of it in the rational soul of the principal guide of man, namely the mind, as he planted trees in the paradise. And when we are told that in the middle was the tree of life, that means the knowledge not only of the creature, but also of the greater and supreme cause of the universe; for if any one is able to arrive at a certain comprehension of that, he will be fortunate and truly happy and immortal.

Moreover, after the creation of the world human wisdom was created, as also after the creation of the world the Paradise was planted ; and so the poets say that the chorus of musicians was established in order to praise the Creator and his works ; as Plato says, that the Creator was the first and greatest of causes, and that the world was the most beautiful of all creatures.

Why in Adin, or Eden, is God said to have planted the Paradise towards the east?

7. This is said in the first place because tne motion of the world proceeds from the rising of the sun to its setting. And it first exists in that quarter from which it is moved ;

secondly, because tnat part of the world which is in the region of the east is called the right side ; and that which is in the region of the west is called the left side of the world.

Moreover the poet bears witness to this, calling the birds from the east dexteras or right, and those on the west sinistras or left ; * when he says, whether they go to the right to the day and to the sun, or whether they go to the left towards the dusky evening.

But the name Eden, when rightly understood, is an indication of all kinds of delights, and joys, and pleasures ; since all good things and all blessings derive their beginning from the place of the Lord. Thirdly, because wisdom itself is splendour and light.

Why did God place man whom he had created in the Paradise, but not that man who is after his own image ?f

8. Some persons have said, when they fancied that the Paradise was a garden, that because the man who was created was endowed with senses, therefore he naturally and properly proceeded into a sensible place ; but the other man, who is made after God's own image, being appreciable only by the intellect, and invisible, had all the incorporeal species for his share ; but I should rather say that the paradise was a symbol of wisdom, for that created man is a kind of mixture, as having been compounded of soul and body, having work to do by learning and discipline ; desiring according to the law of philosophy that he may become happy ; but he who is according to God's own image is in need of nothing, being by him-

He is referring here to Homer —

Tui'l/ O' OltOVnTai TaVVTTTtpvytOGl KtXtVUQ

UiiOi-fitvai, tojv S' ovti fitrarp^Troi our a\tyi£a> EiV Iwl £i%i uogl npbr i)(1>t' 'HAiojts EtV iw' aoMJTipa roiyt ttotti £o0ov jjfpoai'ra. Ei£ oIwvoq apiOTOQ afivviaQai ivipi 7rdrp?j(;.

Or as Pope translates it —

" Ye vagrants of the sky ! your wings extend, Or where the suns arise, or where descend; To right, to left, unheeded take your way, While I the dictates of high Heaven obey.

t Genesis ii. 15.

self a hearer, and being taught by himself, and being found to be his own master by reason of his natural endowments.

Why does Moses say that every tree in the Paradise was beautiful to look upon and good to eat ?

9. He says this because the virtue of trees is of a twofold nature, consisting in bearing leaves and fruit, one of which qualities is referred to the pleasing of the sight, the other to the gratification of the taste ; but the word beautiful was not employed inappropriately. Indeed it is very proper that the plants should be always green and flourishing perpetually, as belonging to a divine Paradise, which as such must be everlasting ; and it is fit too that they should never degenerate so as to lose their leaves.

But of the fruit he says, not that it was beautiful, but that it was good, speaking in a very philosophical spirit; since men take food, not only because of the pleasure which it affords, but also because of its use ; and use is the flowing forth and imparting of some good.

What is meant by the tree of life, and why it was placed in the middle of the Paradise ?

10. Some people have believed that, if there were really plants of a corporeal and deadly nature, there are also some which are causes of life and immortality, because, they say, life and death are opposed to one another, and because some plants are ascertained to be unwholesome, therefore of necessity there must be others from which health may be derived. But what these are which are wholesome they know not ; for generation, as the opinion of the wise has it, is the beginning of corruption.

But perhaps we ought to look on these things as spoken in an allegorical sense ; for some say the tree of life belongs to the earth, inasmuch as it is the earth which produces everything which is of use for life, whether it be the life of mankind or of any other animal ; since God has appointed the situation in the centre for this plant, and the centre of the universe is the earth. There are others who assert that what is meant by the tree of life is the centre between the seven circles ot heaven ; but some affirm that it is the sun which is meant, as that is nearly in the centre, between the different planets, and

is likewise the cause of the four seasons, and since it is owing to him that every thing which exists is called into existence.

Others again understand by the tree of life the direction of the soul, for this it is which renders the sense nervous and solid, so as to produce actions corresponding to its nature, and to the community of the parts of the body. But whatever is in the middle is in a manner the primary cause and beginning of things, like the leader of a chorus. But still, the best and wisest authorities have considered that by the tree of life is indicated the best of all the virtues of man, piety, by which alone the mind attains to immortality.

What is meant by the tree of the knowledge of good and evil ?•

11. This indeed exhibits that meaning which is sought for in the letter of the Scriptures more clearly to the sight, as it bears a manifest allegory on the face of it. What is meant then under this figure is prudence, which is the comprehension of science, by which all things are known and distinguished from one another, whether they be good and beautiful, or bad and unseemly, or in short every sort of contrariety is discerned ; since some things belong to the better class, and some to the worse.

Therefore the wisdom which exists in this world is not in truth God himself, but the work of God ; that it is which sees and thoroughly investigates every thing. But the wisdom which exists in man sees in an incorrect and mixed manner with somewhat darkened eyes; for it is found to be incompetent to see and comprehend clearly and without alloy each particular thing separately. Moreover, there is a kind of deception mingled with human wisdom ; since very often there are some shadows found which hinder the eyes from contemplating a brilliant light ; since what the eye is in the body, such also is the mind and wisdom in the soul.

What the river is which proceeded out of Ad in by which the Paradise is watered, and from which the four rivers proceed, the Phison, and the Gihon, and the Tigris, and the Euphrates ?

12. The sources of the Deglath and of the Arazania, that is to say of the Tigris and Euphrates, are said to arise in the

VOL. IV. U

290 PEILO JUD^EUS.

mountains of Armenia ; but there is no paradise there at this day, nor do both the sources of both these rivers remain there. Perhaps, therefore, we ought to consider that the real situation of the Paradise is in a place at a distance from this part of the world which we inhabit, and that it has a river running beneath the earth, which pours forth many veins of the largest size ; so that they, rising up together, pour themselves forth into other veins, which receive them on account of their great size, and then those have been suppressed by the gulfs of the waves ; on which account, through the impulse given to them by the violence which is implanted in them, they burst out on the face of the earth in other places, and also among others in the mountains of Armenia. Therefore, those things which have been accounted the sources of the rivers, are rather their flowing course ; or again, they may be said to be correctly looked upon as sources, because by all means we must consider the holy scriptures infallible, which point out the fact of four rivers ; for the ri\er is the beginning, and not the spring.

But perhaps this passage also contains an allegorical meaning ; for the four rivers are the signs of four virtues : Phison being the sign of prudence, as deriving its name from parsimony;* and Grihon being the sign of sobriety, as having its employment in the regulation of meat and drink, and as restraining the appetites of the belly, and of those parts which are below the belly, as being earthly ; the Tigris again is the sign of fortitude, for this it is which regulates the raging commotion of anger within us ; and the Euphrates is the sign of justice, since there is nothing in which the thoughts of men exult more than in justice.

Why it is that he not only describes the situation of tne Euphrates, but also says that the Phison goes round all the land of Evilat, and thai the Gihon goes round all the land of Ethiopia, and that the Tigris goes toward Assyria ?f

13. The Tigris is a very cruel and mischievous river, as the citizens of Babylon bear witness, and so do the magi, who have fouud it to be of a character quite different from the nature of other rivers ; however they might also have another reason for looking on it with aversion.

Froir. <ptiS<jj, " parsimony." t Genesis ii.

But the Euphrates is a gentler, and more salubrious, and more nourishing stream. On which account, the wise men of the Hebrews and Assyrians speak of it as one which increases and extends itself; and on this account it is not here characterised by its connection with other things, as the other three rivers are, but by itself.

My own opinion is, that these expressions are all symbolical, for prudence is the virtue of the rational part of man ; and it is in this that wickedness is sometimes found. And fortitude is that portion of the human character which is liable to degenerate into anger. And sobriety, again, may be impaired by the desires, but anger and concupiscence are the characteristics of beasts ; therefore the sacred historian has here described those three rivers by the places which they flow round. But he has not described the Euphrates in that manner, as being the symbol of justice, for there is no certain and limited portion of it allotted to the soul, but a perfect harmony of the three parts of the soul and of the three virtues is possessed by it.

Why Grod placed man in the Paradise with a twofold object,* namely, that he might both till it and keep it, when the Paradise was in reality in need of no cultivation, because it was perfect in everything, as having been planted by God ; nor, again, did it require a keeper, for who was there to ravage it ?

14. These are the two objects which a cultivation of the land must attain to and take care of, the cultivation of the land and the safe keeping of the things which are in it, otherwise it will be spoiled by laziness or else by devastation. But although the Paradise did not stand in need of these exertions, nevertheless it was proper that he who had the regulation and care of it committed to him, namely, the first man, shoidd be as it were a sort of pattern and law to all workmen in future of everything which ought to be done by them.

Moreover it was suitable that, though all the Paradise was full of everything, it should still leave the cultivator some grounds for care, and some means of displaying his industry ; for instance, by digging around it, and tending it, and soften-

ing it, and digging trenches, and irrigating it by water ; and it was needful to attend to its safety, although there was no one to lay it waste, because of the wild beasts, also more especially in respect of the air and water ; as, for instance, when a drought prevailed, to irrigate it with a plenteous supply of water, and in moister weather to check the superabundance of moisture by directing the course of the streams in other directions.

Why, when God commanded the man to eat of every tree within the Paradise, he speaks in the singular number, and says, " Thou shalt eat ;" but when he commands that he shall abstain from the tree which would give him the knowledge of good and evil, he speaks in the plural number, and says, " Te shall not eat of it, for in the day in which ye eat of it ye shall surely die ?"

15. In the first place he uses this language because one good was derived from many; and that also is not unimportant in these principles, since he who has done anything which is of utility is one, and he who attains to anything useful is also one ; but when I say one, I am speaking not of that which in point of number comes before duality, but of that one creative virtue by whieh many beings rightly coalesce, and by their concord imitate singularity, as a flock, a herd, a troop, a chorus, an army, a nation, a tribe, a family, a state ; for all these things being many members form one community, being united by affection as by a kiss ; when things which are not combined, and which have no principle of union by reason of their duality and multitude, fall into different divisions, for duality is the beginning of discord.

But two men living as if they were one, by the same philosophy, practise an unalloyed and brilliant virtue, which is free from all taint of wickedness ; but where good and evil are mingled together the combination contains the principle of death.

"What is the meaning of the expression, " Ye shall surely die?"f

16. The death of the good is the beginning of another life ; for life is a twofold thing, one life being in the body,

corruptible; the other without the body, incorruptible. Therefore one wicked man surely dies the death, who while still breathing and among the living is in reality long since buried, so as to retain in himself no single spark of real life, which is perfect virtue. But a good man, who deserves so high a title, does not surely die, but has his life prolonged, and so attains to an eternal end.

"Why God says, " It is not good for man to be alone ; let us make him a help meet for him ?"

17. By these words God intimates that there is to be a communion, not with all men, but with those who are willing to be assisted and in their turn to assist others, even though they may scarcely have any power to do so ; since love consists not more in utility than in the harmonious concord of trustworthy and steadfast manners ; so that every one who joins in a communioo of love may be entitled to utter the expression of Pythagoras, " A friend is another

Why, when God had already said, " Let us make a help for man," he creates beasts and cattle ?f

18. Perhaps some gluttons and insatiably greedy persons may say that God did this because beasts and flying things were, as it were, necessary food for man, and his meetest helper ; for that the eating of meat assists the belly so as to conduce to the health and vigour of the body. But I should think that by reason of the evil implanted in them by nature animals of all kinds, whether terrestrial or flying in the air, were in this age hostile to and contrary to man ; but that in the case of the first man, as one adorned with every imaginable virtue, they were, as it were, allies, and a reinforcement in war, and farriliar friends, as being tame and domestic by nature, and this was the sole principle of their familiarity with man, for this it was fit that servants should dwell with their lord.

Why the creation of animals and flying creatures is mentioned a second time, when the account of their creation had already been given in the history of the six days ?

19. Perhaps those things which were created in the six

294 philo jg^EUS.

days were incorporeal angels, indicated under these symbolical expressions, being the appearances of terrestrial and flying animals, but now they were produced in reality, being the copies of what had been created before, images perceptible by the outward senses of invisible models.

"Why did God bring every animal to man, that he might give them their names ?

20. He has here explained a great source of perplexity to the students of philosophy, admonishing them that names proceed from having been given, and not from nature ; for a natural nomenclature is Avith peculiar fitness assigned to each creature when a man of wisdom and pre-eminent knowledge appears ; and, in fact, the office of assigning the names to animals is one which particularly belongs to the mind of the wise man alone, and indeed to the first man born out of the earth, since it was fitting that the first of the human race, and the sovereign of all the animals born out of the earth, should have the dignity assigned to him.

For inasmuch as he was the first person to see the animals, and as he was the first person who deserved to govern them all as their chief, so also it was fitting that he should be their first namer and the inventor of their names, since it would have been inconsistent and mad to leave them without any names, or to allow them to receive names from any one born at a later period, which would have been an insult to and a derogation from the honour and glory due to the first born.

But we may also adopt this idea, that the giving of names to the different animals was so easily arranged that the very moment that Adam gave the name the animal itself also heard it ; being influenced by the name thus given to it as by a familiar indication closely connected with it.

Why Moses says, " He brought the animals to Adam, that he might see what he would call them," when God can never entertain a doubt ?f

21. It is in truth inconsistent with the nature of God to doubt ; therefore it does not appear that he was in doubt on this occasion, but that since he had given intellect to man

as being the first man born out of the earth and endowed with a great desire for virtue, by which he was made thoroughly wise as if he had been endowed with wisdom by nature, so as to consider all things like the proper Ruler and Lord of all, God now caused him to be influenced to display the proper performance of his task, and saw what was really the most excellent point of his mind.

Besides this, by this statement he evidently indicates the perfect free-will existing in us, refuting those who affirm that everything exists by a certain necessity.

Or else because it belonged to man to employ the animals, therefore he also gave him authority to give them names.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And whatever he called each living thing, that was the name thereof?"

22. We must consider that Adam gave names not only to all living creatures, but also to plants, and to everything else which is inanimate, beginning with the more excellent class ; for the living creature is superior to that which has not life. Therefore the scripture considers the mention of the better part sufficient, indicating by this mention to all who are not utterly devoid of sense, that he in fact gave names to everything, since it was easy to fix names to things without life, which were never likely to change their place, and which had no passions of the soul to exercise, but the giving of proper appellations to living creatures was a more difficult task on account of the motions of their bodies and the various impulses of their souls, in accordance with imagination and the variety of the outward senses, and the different agitations of the mind from which the effects of their works proceed. Therefore the mind could give names to the more difficult classes of living creatures. And on this account it was a very proper expression to employ, that he gave them names as being easy to name, because they were near.

What is the meaning of the expression : " But for Adam there was not found a helper like to him ?"

23. Every thing was helping and assisting the prince of the human race : the earth, the rivers, the sea, the air, the

light, the heaven. Moreover, every species of fruit and plant co-operated with him, and every herd of cattle, and every beast which was not savage. Nevertheless, of all these things which were assisting him, there was nothing like himself, inasmuch as they were none of them human beings. Therefore, God gave a certain indication that he might show that man ought to be an assistant to and cooperator with man, being endowed with perfect similarity to one another in both body and soul.

"What is the meaning of the statement, " And God sent a trance upon Adam, and caused him to sleep ?"

24. How it is that man sleeps is a question which has caused an extraordinary amount of perplexity to philosophers. But yet our prophet has distinctly explained this question ; for sleep is in itself properly a trance, not of that kind which is more nearly allied to insanity, but of that which is in accordance with the dissolution of the senses and the absence of counsel ; for then the senses withdraw from those things which are their proper object, and the intellect withdraws from the senses, not strengthening their nerves, nor giving any motion to those parts which have received the power of action, inasmuch as they are withdrawn from the objects perceptible by the outward senses.

What the rib is which God took from the man whom he had formed out of the earth, and which he made into a woman ?

25. The letter of this statement is plain enough ; for it is expressed according to a symbol of the part, a half of the whole, each party, the man and the woman, being as sections of nature co-equal for the production of that genus which is called man. But with respect to the mind, man is understood in a symbolical manner, and his. one rib is virtue, proceeding from the senses; but woman, who is the sensation of counsel, will be more variable.

But some think that the rib means valour and vigour, on which account men call a boxer who has strong loins eminently strong.

Therefore, the lawgiver relates that the woman was

formed out of the rib of the man, indicating by that expression, that one half of the body of the man is woman. And this is testified to by the formation of the body, by the way in which it is put together, by its motions and vigour, by the force of the soul, and its strength ; for all things are regarded as in a twofold light ; since, as the formation of the man is more perfect, and, if one may so say, more double than the formation of the woman, so also it required half the time, that is to say forty days ; when, for the imperfect, and, if I may so call it, half section of the man, that is to say the woman, there was need of a double allowance, that is to say, of eighty days, so that the doubling of the time required for the nature of the man might be changed, in order to the formation of the peculiar properties of the woman ; for that body, and that soul, the nature of which is in a twofold ratio, the body and soul, that is, of the man, require but half of the delineation and formation : but that body of which the nature and construction is in the ratio of one half, namely, that of the woman, her formation and delineation is in a twofold ratio.

"Why Moses calls the form of the woman a building ?

26. The union and plenitude of concord formed by the man and woman is symbolically called a house ; but every thing is altogether imperfect and destitute of a home, which is deserted by a woman ; for to the man the public affairs of the state are committed, but the particular affairs of the house belong to the woman ; and a want of the woman will be the destruction of the house ; but the actual presence of the woman shows the regulation of the house.

Why, as other animals and as man also was made, the woman was not also made out of the earth, but out of the rib of the man ?

27. This was so ordained in the first place, in order that the woman might not be of equal dignity with the man. In the second place, that she might not be of equal age with him, but younger'; since those who marry wives more advanced in years than themselves deserve blame, as having

Genesis ii. 22. The margin of our bible points out that tha Hebrew word translated " made," means strictly " builded."

298 PHILO JUDJSUS.

overturned, the law of nature. Thirdly, the design of God was, that the husband should take care of his wife, as of a necessary part of himself; but that the woman should requite him in turn with service, as a portion of the universe. In the fourth place, he admonishes man by this enigmatical intimation, that he should take care of his wife as of his daughter; and he admonishes the woman that she should honour her husband as her father. And very rightly, since the woman changes her habitation, passing from her own ofi'spring to her husband. On which account, it is altogether right and proper that he who has received should take upon himself the liability in respect of what has been given ; and that she who has been removed should worthily give the same honour to her husband which she has previously given to her parents ; for the husband receives his wife from her parents, as a deposit which is entrusted to him ; and the woman receives her husband from the law.

Why, when the man saw the woman who had been formed in this manner, he proceeded to say: "She" (or "this," two) " is now bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh : she shall be called woman, because she has been taken out of man?"

28. He might have been amazed at what he had seen, and have said in a negative manner : How can this exquisite and desirable beauty have been derived from bones and from flesh which are endowed with neither beauty nor elegance, being of a form so far more beautiful, and endowed with such excessive life and grace ? The matter is incredible because she is like ; and yet it is credible, because God himself has been her creator and painter.

Again, he might have said affirmatively : Truly she is a living being, my bone and my flesh, for she exists by having been taken from that bone and flesh of mine. But he makes mention of his bone and flesh in a very natural manner ; for the human or corporeal tabernacle is the combination of bones, and flesh, and entrails, and veins, and nerves, and ligaments, and blood-vessels, and breathing tubes, and blood. And she is called woman (in Greek ywri) with great correctness, as the power of producing

Genesis ii. 23. Woman, virgo, or virago, is here looked upon as derived from vir, "man ;" he also derives yvvi) from jtvvdu).

with fertility, either because she becomes pregnant through the reception of the seed, and so brings forth ; or, as the prophet says, because she was made out of man, not out of the earth, as he was ; nor from seed, as all mankind after them ; but of a certain intermediate nature ; and like a branch, brought out of one vine to produce another vine.

Why he says, "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and cleave to his wife, and they shall be two in one flesh ?"

29. He here orders man to behave himself towards his wife with such excess of affection in their intercourse, that he is willing to leave his parents, not in order that by that means it may be more suitable, but as they would scarcely be a motive for his fidelity to his wife. And we must remark, that it is very excellent and prudently done, that he has avoided saying that the woman is to leave her parents and cleave to her husband, since the character of the man is bolder than the nature of the woman ; but he savs that the man ought to do this for the sake of the woman ; for he is borne on by a cheerful and willing impulse to the concord of knowledge, to which, becoming wholly devoted, he restrains and regulates his desires, and clings to his wife alone like bird-lime. Especially because he himself, delighting in his master-like authority, is to be respected for his pride : but the woman, being in the rank of a servant, is praised, for assenting to a life of communion.

And when it is said that the two are one flesh, that indicates that the flesh is very tangible and fully endowed with outward senses, on which it depends to be afflicted with pain and delighted with pleasure, so that both the man and woman may derive pleasure and pain from the same sources, and may feel the same ; aye, and may still more think the same.

Why both of them, the man and the woman, are said to have been naked, and not to have been ashamed ?f

30. They were not ashamed, in the first place, because they were in the neighbourhood of the world, and the different parts of the world are all naked, each of them

indicating some peculiar qualities, and having peculiar coverings of their own. In the second place, on account of the sincerity and simplicity of then* manners and of their natural disposition, which had no taint of pride about it. For ambition had as yet no existence. Thirdly, because the climate and the mildness of the atmosphere was a sufficient covering for them, so as to prevent either cold or heat from hurting them. In the fourth place, because they, by reason of the relationship existing between themselves and the world, could not receive injury from any part of it whatever, as being related to them.

"Why does Moses say that the serpent was more cunning than all the beasts of the field ?

31. One may probably affirm with truth that the serpent in reality is more cunning than any beast whatever. But the reason why he appears to me to be spoken of in these terms here is on account of the natural proneness of mankind to vice, of which he is the symbol. And by vice I mean concupiscence, inasmuch as those who are devoted to pleasure are more cunning, and are the inventors of stratagems and means by which to indulge their passions. Being, forsooth, very crafty in devising plans, both such as favour pleasure and also such as procure means of enjoying it. But it appears to me that since that animal, so superior in wisdom, was about to seduce man, it is not the whole race that is here meant to bo spoken of as so exceedingly wise, but only that single serpent, for the reason above mentioned.

Did the serpent speak with a human voice ?f

32. In the first place, it may be the fact that at the beginning of the world even the other animals besides man were not entirely destitute of the power of articulate speech, but only that man excelled them in a greater fluency and perspicuity of speech and language. In the second place, when anything very marvellous requires to be done, God changes the subject natures by which he means to operate. Thirdly, because our soul is entirely filled with many errors, and rendered deaf to all words except in one or two languages to which it is accustomed ; but the souls of those who

Genesis iii. 1. f Genesis iii. 2.

were first created were rendered acute to thoroughly understand every voice of every kind, m order that they might be pure from evil and wholly unpolluted. Since we indeed are not endowed with senses in such perfection, for those which we have received are in some degree depraved, just as the construction of our bodies too is small ; but the first created men, as they received bodies of vast size reaching to a gigantic L oight, must also of necessity have received more accurate senses, and, what is more excellent still, a power of examining into and hearing things in a philosophical manner. For some people think, and perhaps with some reason, that they were endowed with such eyes as enabled them to behold even those natures, and essences, and operations, which exist in heaven, as also ears by which they could comprehend every kind of voice and language.

Why did the serpent accost the woman, and not the man ?

33. The serpent, having formed his estimate of virtue, devised a treacherous stratagem against them, for the sake of bringing mortality on them. But the woman was more accustomed to be deceived than the man. For his counsels as well as his body are of a masculine sort, and competent to disentangle the notions of seduction ; but the mind of the woman is more effeminate, so that through her softness she easily yields and is easily caught by the persuasions of falsehood, which imitate the resemblance of truth.

Since therefore, in his old age, the serpentf strips himself of his scales from the top of his head to his tail, he, by his nakedness, reproaches man because he has exchanged death for immortality. His nature is renewed by the beast, and made to resemble every time. The woman, when she sees this, is deceived ; when she ought rather to have looked upon him as an example, who, while showing his ingenuity towards her, was full of devices, bat she was led to desire to acquire a life which should be free from old age, and from all decay.

+ The ancients believed that the serpent became young again by casting his skin. Ovid says —

Anguibus exuitur tenui cum pelle vetusta?.

"Why the serpent tells the woman lies, saying, " God has said, Ye shall not eat of every tree in the Paradise," when, on the contrary, what God really had said was, " Te shall eat of every tree in the Paradise, except one ? "

34. It is the custom for contending arguers to speak falsely in an artful manner, in order to produce ignorance of the real facts, as was done in this case, since the man and woman had been commanded to eat of all the trees but one. But this insidious prompter of wickedness coming in, says that the order which they had received was that they should not eat of them all. He brought forward an ambiguous statement as a slippery stumbling-block to cause the soul to trip. Por this expression, " Ye shall not eat of every tree," means in the first place either, not even of one, which is false ; or, secondly, not of every one, as if he intended to say, there are some of which you may not eat, which is true. Therefore he asserts such a falsehood more explicitly.

"Why, when it was commanded them to avoid eating of one plant alone, the woman made also a further addition to this injunction, saying, " He said, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it ? "f

35. In the first place she says this, because taste and every other sense after its kind consists in the touch appropriate to it. In the second place she says it that it may seem to condemn them themselves, who did what they had been forbidden. Por if even the mere act of touching it was prohibited, how could they who, besides touching the tree, presumed to eat of the fruit, and so added a greater transgression to the lesser one, be anything but condemners and punishers of themselves ?

"What is the meaning of the expression, " Ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil ? "J

36. "Whence was it that the serpent found the plural word "gods," when there is only one true God, and when this is the first time that he names him ? But perhaps this arises from there having been in him a certain prescient wisdom, by which he now declared the notion of the multitude of gods which was at a future time to prevail amongst

Genesis iii. 4. t Genesis iii. 3. J Genesis iii. 5

men ; and, perhaps, history now relates this correctly at its first being advanced not by any rational being, nor by any creature of the higher class, but as having derived its origin from the most virulent and vile of beasts and serpents, since other similar creatures lie hid under the earth, and their lurking places are in the holes and fissures of the earth.

Moreover, it is the inseparable sign of a being endowed with reason to look upon God as essentially one being, but it is the mark of a beast to imagine that there are many gods, and these too devoid of reason, and who can scarcely be said with propriety to have any existence at all.

Moreover, the devil proceeds with great art, speaking by the mouth of the serpent. For not only is there in the Divinity the knowledge of good and evil, but there is also an approval of what is good and a repudiation of what is evil ; but he does not speak of either of these feelings because they were useful, but only suggested the mere knowledge of the two contrary things, namely, of good and evil. In the second place, the expression, " as gods," in the plural number, is in this place not used inconsiderately, but in order to give the idea of there being both a bad and a good God. And these are of a twofold quality. Therefore it is suitable to the notion of particular gods to have a knowledge of contrary things ; but the Supreme Cause is above all others.

Why the woman first touched the tree and ate of its fruit, and the man afterwards, receiving it from her ?

37. The words used first of all, by their own intrinsic force, assert that it was suitable that immortality and every good thing should be represented as under the power of the man, and death and every evil under that of the woman. But with reference to the mind, the woman, when understood symbolically, is sense, and the man is intellect. Moreover, the outward senses do of necessity touch those things which are perceptible by them ; but it is through the medium of the outward senses that things are transmitted to the mind. For the outward senses are influenced by the objects

which are presented to them ; and the intellect by the outward senses.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And she gave it to her husband to eat with her ? "

38. What has been just said bears on this point also, since the time is nearly one and the same in which the outward senses are influenced by the object which is presented to them, and the intellect has an impression made on it by the outward senses.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And the eyes of both of them were opened ? "f

39. That they were not created blind is manifest even from this fact that as all other things, both animals and plants, were created in perfection, so also man must have been adorned with the things which are his most excellent parts, namely, eyes. And we may especially prove this, because a little while before the earth-born Adam was giving names to all the animals on the earth. Therefore it is perfectly plain that he saw them before doing so. Unless, indeed, Moses used the expression " eyes " in a figurative sense for the vision of the soul, by which alone the perception of good and evil, of what is elegant or unsightly, and, in fact, of all contrary natures, arise. But, if the eye is to be taken separately as counsel, which is called the warning of the understanding, then again there is a separate eye, which is a certain something devoid of sound reason, which is called opinion.

What is the meaning of the expression, " Because they knew that they were naked ? "J

40. They first arrived at the knowledge of this fact, that is to say, of their nakedness, after they had eaten of the forbidden fruit. Therefore, opinion was like the beginning of wickedness, when they perceived that they had not as yet used any covering, inasmuch as all parts of the universe are immortal and incorruptible ; but they themselves immediately found themselves in need of some corruptible coverings made with hands. But this knowledge was in the

nakedness itself, not as having been in itself the cause of any change, but because their mind now conceived a novelty unlike the rest of the universal world.

Why they sewed fig-leaves into girdles ?

4L They did this in the first place, because the fruit of the fig is very pleasant and agreeable to the taste. Therefore the sacred historian here, by a symbolical expression, indicates those who sew together and join pleasures to pleasures by every means and contrivance imaginable. Therefore they bind them around the place where the parts of generation are seated, as that is the instrument of important transactions.

And they do this, secondly, because although the fruit of the fig-tree is, as I have already said, sweeter than any other, yet its leaves are harder. And, therefore, Moses here wishes by this symbol to intimate that the motions of pleasure are slippery and smooth in appearance, but that they, nevertheless, are in reality hard, so that it is impossible that he who feels them should be delighted, unless he was previously sorrowful, and he will again become sorrowful. For to be always sorrowing is a melancholy thing between a double grief, the one being at its beginning, and the other coming: before the first is ended.

What is meant by the statement that the sound was heard of God walking in the Paradise ? was it the sound of his voice, or of his feet ? and can God be said to walk ?f

42. Those gods who are in heaven, perceptible to our outward senses, walk in a ring, proceeding onwards by a circuitous track ; but the Supreme Cause is steadfast and immoveable, as the ancients have decided. But the true God gives some indication also, as if he wished to give a sense of motion. For in truth even without his uttering any words, the prophets hear him, by a certain virtue of some diviner voice sounding in their ears, or perhaps being even articulately uttered.

As therefore God is heard without uttering any sound,

so also he gives an idea of walking when he is not walking,

nay, though he is altogether immoveable. But do you not

see that before they had tasted of wickedness, as they were

VOL. IT. X

306 PHTLO JUD.<EUS.

stable and constant, and immoveable and tranquil, and uniform, so also in an equal manner must they have looked upon tbe Deity as immoveable, as in fact he is. But they once had become endued with cunning, they, by judging from themselves, began to strip him of his attributes of immobility and unchangeableness, and conjectured that he too was subject to variation and change.

Why while they are hiding themselves from the face o God, the woman is not mentioned first, since she was the first to eat of the forbidden fruit : but why the man is spoken of in the first place ; for the sacred historian's words are, " And Adam and his wife hid themselves ?"

43. The woman, being imperfect and depraved by nature, made the beginning of sinning and prevaricating ; but the man, as being the more excellent and perfect creature, was the first to set the example of blushing and of being ashamed, and indeed, of every good feeling and action.

"Why they did not hide themselves in some other place, but in the middle of the trees of the Paradise ?t

44. Every thing is not done by sinners with wisdom and sagacity, but it often happens that while thieves are watching for an opportunity of plunder, having no thoughts of the Deity who presides over the world, the booty which is close to them and lying at their feet is by some admirable management wrested from them without delay : and something of this kind took place on the present occasion. For when they ought rather to have fled to a distance from the garden in which their offence had taken place, they still were arrested in the middle of the Paradise itself, in order that they might be convicted of their sin too clearly to find any refuge even in flight itself. And this statement indicates in a figurative manner that every wicked man takes refuge in wickedness, and that every man who is wholly devoted to his passions flies to those passions as to an asylum.

Why God asks Adam, "Where art thou?" when he knows everything : and "why he does not also put the same question to the woman ? J

45. The expression, "Where art thou ?" does not here

seem to be a mere interrogatory, but rather a threat and a conviction : " "Where art thou now, 0 man ? from how many good things art thou changed ? having forsaken immortality und a life of the most perfect happiness, you have become changed to death and misery in which you are buried."

But God did not condescend to put any question to the woman at all, looking upon her as the cause of the evil which had occurred, and as the guide to her husband to a life of shame.

But there is an allegorical meaning in this passage, because the principal part is the man, his guide, the mind, having in itself the masculine principle, when it gives ear to any one introduces also the defect of the female part, namely that of the outward sense.

"Why the man says, " The woman gave me of the tree, and I did eat;"* but the woman does not say, "The serpent gave to me, but, " The serpent beguiled me and I did eat ?

46. The literal expression here affords grounds for that probable opinion that woman is accustomed rather to be deceived than to devise anything of importance out of her own head ; but with the man the case is just the contrary. But as regards the intellect, everything which is the object of the outward senses beguiles and seduces each particular sense of every imperfect beiug to which it is adapted. And the sense then, being vitiated by the object, infects the dominant and principal part, the mind, with its own taint. Therefore the mind receives the impression from the outward sense, giving it that which it has received itself. For the outward sense is deceived and beguiled by the sensible object submitted to it, but the senses of the wise man are infallible, as are also the cogitations of his mind.

"Why God curses the serpent first, then the woman, and the man last of all ?"t

47. The reason is that the order of the curses followed the order in which the offences were committed. The first offence was the deceit practised by the serpent ; the second was the sin of the woman which was owing to him when the abandoned herself to his seduction ; the third thing

30S PHILO JUD.El'S.

"was the guilt of the man in yielding rather to the inclination of the woman than to the commandment of Grod. But thi3 order is very admirable, containing -within itself a perfect allegory ; inasmuch as the serpent is the emblem of desire, as is proved, and the "woman of the outward sense ; but the man is the symbol of intellect. Therefore the infamous author of the sin is desire ; and that first deceives the outward sense, and then the outward sense captivates the mind.

"W hy the curse is pronounced on the serpent in this manner, that he shall go on his breast and on his belly, and eat dust, and be at enmity -with the "woman ?

4S. The words in themselves are plain enough, and we have evidence of them in what we have seen. But the real meaning contains an allegory concealed beneath it ; since the serpent is the emblem of desire, representing under a figure a man devoted to pleasure. For he creeps upon his breast and upon his belly, being filled with meat and drink like cormorants, being inflamed by an insatiable cupidity, and being incontinent in their voracity and devouring of flesh, so that whatever relates to food is in every article something earthly, on which account he is said to eat the dust.

But desire has naturally a quarrel with the outward sense, which Moses here symbolically calls the woman ; but where the passions appear to be as it were guardians and champions in behalf of the senses, nevertheless they are beyond all question still more clearly flatterers forming: devices against

them like so many enemies ; and it is the custom of those who are contending with one another to perpetrate greater evils by means of those things which they concede. Forsooth they turn the eyes to the ruin of the sight, the ears to hearing what is unwelcome ; and the rest of the outward senses to insensibflity. Moreover they cause dissolution and paralysis to the entire body, taking away from it all soundness, and foolishly building up instead a great number of most mischievous diseases.

AVhy the curse pronounced against the woman is the multiplication of her sadness and groans, that she shall bring forth children in sorrow, and that her desire shall be to her husband, and that she shall be ruled over by him rf

49. Every woman who is the companion for life of a husband suffers all those things, not indeed as a curse but as necessary evils. But speaking figuratively, the human sense is wholly subjected to severe labour and pain, being stricken and wounded by domestic agitations. Now the following are the train in the service of the outward senses : the sight is the servant of the eyes, hearing of the ears, smelling of the nostrds, taste of the mouth, feeling of the touch.

Since the Life of the worthless and wicked man is full of pain and want, it arises of necessity from these facts that every thins: which is done in accordance with the outward sense must be mingled with pain and fear. In respect of the mind a conversion of the outward sense takes place towards the man not as to a companion, for it, Like the woman, is subject to authority as being depraved, but as to a master, because it has chosen violence rather than justice.

"Why Grod, as he had pronounced a curse on the serpent and on the woman which bore a relation to themselves and to one another, he did not pronounce a similar one upon the man, but connected the earth with him, saying," Cursed is the earth for thy sake ; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it, thorns and thistles shall it bring forth unto thee, and thou shalt eat the grass of the field: in the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat thy bread.?"

50. Since all intellect is a divine inspiration, God did not judge it right to curse him in the manner deserved by his offence ; but converted his curse so as to fall upon the earth and his cultivation of it. But man, as a body of co-equal nature and simdar character to that of the earth and understanding, is its cultivator. "vThen the cultivator is endowed with virtue and diligence, then the body produces its proper fruit, namely sanity, an excellent state of the outward senses, strength, and beauty. But if the cultivator be a savage, then every thing is different. For the body becomes liable to a curse, since it has for its husbandman an intellect unchastised and unsound. And its fruit is nothing useful, but only thorns and thistles, sorrow and fear, and other vices which every thought strikes down, and as it were pierces the intellect with its dart?.

Bat grass here is symbolically used for food ; since man has changed himself from a rational animal into a brute beaet, having neglected all divine food, which is given by philosophy, by means of distinct words and laws to regulate the will.

"What is the meaning of the expression, " Until thou returnest to the earth from which thou wast taken;" for man was not created out of the earth alone, but also of the divine Spirit ?

51. In the first place it is clear, that the first man who was formed out of the earth was made up both of earth and heaven ; but because he did not continue uncorrupt, but despised the commandment of God, fleeing from the most excellent part, namely, from heaven, he gave himself up wholly as a slave to the earth, the denser and heavier element.

In the second place, if any one burns with a desire of virtue, which makes the soul immortal, he, beyond all question, attains to a heavenly inheritance ; but because he was covetous of pleasure, by which spiritual death is engendered, he again gives himself over a second time to the earth, on which account it is said to him, " Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return ;" therefore the earth, as it is the beginning of a wicked and depraved man, so also it is his end ; but heaven is the beginning and end of him who is endowed with virtue.

Why Adam called his wife Life, and affirmed to her, " Thou art the mother of all living ?"f

52. In the first place, Adam gave to the first created woman that familiar name of Life, inasmuch as she was destined to be the fountain of all the generations which should ever arise upon the earth after their time.

In the second place, he called her by this name because she did not derive the existence of her substance out of the earth, but out of a living creature, namely, out of one part of the man, that is to say, out of his rib, which was formed into a woman, and on that account she was called "life," because she was first made out of a living creature, and

because the first beings who were endowed with reason were to be generated from her. Nevertheless, it is possible that this may have been a metaphorical expression ; for is not the outward sense, which is a figurative emblem of the woman, called with peculiar propriety " life r" because it is by the possession of these senses that the living being is above all other means distinguished from that which is not alive, as it is by that that the imaginations and impulses of the soul are set in motion, for the senses are the causes of each ; and, in real truth the outward sense is the mother of all living creatures, for as there could be no generation without a mother, so also there could be no living creature without sense.

Why God made garments of skins for Adam and his wife, and clothed them ?

53. Perhaps some one may laugh at the expressions here used, considering the small value of the garments thus made, as if they were not at all worthy of the labour of a Creator of such dignity and greatness ; but a man who has a proper appreciation of wisdom and virtue will rightly and deservedly look upon this work as one very suitable for a Grod, that, namely, of teaching wisdom \f> those who were before labouring to no purpose ; and who, having but little anxiety about procuring useful things, being seized with an insane desire for miserable honours, have given themselves up as slaves to convenience, looking upon the study of wisdom and virtue with detestation, and being in love with splendour of life and skill in mean and handicraft arts, which is in no way connected with a virtuous man.

And these unhappy men do not know that a frugality, which is in need of nothing, becomes, as it were, a relation and neighbour to man, but that luxurious splendour is banished to a distance as an enemy ; therefore the garment made of skins, if one should come to a correct judgment, deserves to be looked upon as a more noble possession than a purple robe embroidered with various colours.

Therefore this is the literal meaning of the text ; but if we look to the real meaning, then the garment of skins is a figurative expression for the natural skin, that -is to say, our

body ; for God, when first of all he made the intellect, called it Adam ; after that he created the outward sense, to which he gave the name of Life. In the third place, he of necessity also made a body, calling that by a figurative expression, a garment of skins ; for it was fitting that the intellect and the outward sense should be clothed in a body as in a garment of skins ; that the creature itself might first of all appear worthy of divine virtue ; since by what power can the formation of the human body be put together more excellently, and in a more becoming manner, than by God ? on which account he did put it together, and at the same time he clothed it ; when some prepare articles of human clothing and others put them on ; but this natural clothing, contemporary with the man himself, namely, the body, belonged to the same Being both to make and to clothe the man in after it was made.

Who those beings are to whom God says, " Behold, Adam has become as one of us, to know good and evil P"

54. The expression, " one of us," indicates a plurality of beings ; unless indeed we are to suppose, that God is conversing with his own virtues, which he employed as instruments, as it were, to create the universe and all that is in it ; but that expression " as," resembles an enigma, and a similitude, and a comparison, but is not declaratory of any dissimilarity ; for that which is intelligible and sensibly good, and likewise that which is of a contrary character, is known to God in a different manner from that in which it is known to man ; since, in the same way in which the natures of those who inquire and those who comprehend, and the things themselves too which are inquired into, and perceived, and comprehended, are distinguished, virtue itself is also capable of comprehending them. But all these things are similitudes, and forms, and images, among men ; but among the gods they are prototypes, models, indications, and more manifest examples of things which are somewhat obscure ; but the unborn and uncreated Father joins himself to no one, except with the intention of extending the honour of his virtues.

What is the meaning of the words, " Lest perchance he

put forth his hand and take of the tree of life, and eat and live for ever;"* for there is no uncertainty and no envy in God ?

55. It is quite true that God never feels either uncertainty or envy; nevertheless he often employs ambiguous things and expressions, assenting to them as a man might do ; for, as I have said before, the supreme providence is of a twofold nature, sometimes being God, and not acting in any respect as a man ; but, on some occasions, as a man instructs his son, so likewise should the Lord God give warning to you.

Therefore the first of these circumstances belongs to his sovereign power, and the second to his disciplinary, and to the first introduction to instruction, so as to insinuate into man's heart a voluntary inclination, since that expression, " lest perchance," is not to be taken as a proof of any hesitation on the part of God, but in relation to man, who, by his nature, is prone to hesitation, and is a denunciation of the inclinations which exist in him.

For when any appearance of anything whatever occurs to any man, immediately there arises within him an impulse towards that which appears, being caused by that very thing which appears. And from this arises the second hesitating kind of uncertainty, distracting the mind in various directions, as to whether the thing is fit to be accepted, or acquired, or not. And very likely present circumstances have a respect to that second feeling ; for, in truth, the Divinity is incapable of any cunning, or malevolence, or wickedness : it is absolutely impossible that God should either envy the immortality or any other good fortune belonging to any being. And we can bring the most undeniable proof of this ; for it was not in consequence of any one's entreaties that he created the world ; but, being a merciful benefactor, rendering an essence previously untamed and unregulated, and liable to suffering, gentle and pleasant, he did so by a vast harmony of blessings, and a regulated arrangement of them, like a chorus ; and he being himself the only sure being, planted the tree of life by his own luminous character.

314 PHILO JUThEUS.

Moreover, he was not influenced by the mediation or exhortation of any other being in communicating incorruptibility to man. But while man existed as the purest intellect, displaying no appearance either of work or of any evil discourse, he was certain to have a fitting guide, to lead him in the paths of piety, which is undoubted and genuine immortality. But from the time when he began to be converted to depravity, wishing for the things which belong to mortal life, he wandered from immortality ; for it is not fitting that craft and wickedness should be rendered immortal, and moreover it would be useless to the subject; since the longer the life is which is granted to the wicked and depraved man, the more miserable is he than others, so that his immortality becomes a grave misfortune to him.

"Why now he calls the Paradise "pleasure," when he is sending man forth out of it to till the ground from which ne was taken.

56. The distinction of agriculture is conspicuous, when man in the state of paradise, practising the cultivation of wisdom as if he were employed in the cultivation of trees, and enjoying the food of imperishable and most useful fruits, was himself endowed with immortality likewise. After that, being expelled from the place of wisdom, ho experienced the opposite effects of ignorance, by which the body is polluted, and at the same time the intellect is blinded, and, being exposed to a want of proper food, he wastes away, and yields to a miserable death.

On which account, now, in contempt of the foolish man, God calls the Paradise "pleasure," in order to put it in opposition to a life of pain, and misery, and savageness. In truth, the life which is passed in wisdom is a pleasure, full of liberal joy, and is the constant enjoyment of a rational soul ; but that life which is destitute of wisdom is found to be both savage and miserable, although it is excessively deceived by the appetites, which pain both precedes and follows.

Why God places a cherubim in front of the Paradise, and a flaming sword, which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life ?t

57. The name cherubim designates the two original virtues which belong to the Deity, namely, his creative and his royal virtues. The one of which has the title of God, the other, or the royal virtue, that of Lord. Now the form of the creative power is a peaceable, and gentle, and beneficent virtue; but the royal power is a legislative, and chastising, and correcting virtue. Moreover, by the flaming sword he here symbolically intimates the heaven : for the air is of a flaming colour, and turns itself round, revolving about the universe.

Therefore, all these things assumed to themselves the guardianship of the Paradise, because they are the presidents over wisdom, like a mirror ; since, to illustrate my meaning by an example, the wisdom of the world is a sort of mirror of the divine virtues, in the similitude of which it was perfected, and by which the universe and all the things in it are regulated and arranged. But the way to wisdom is called philosophy (a word which means the love or the pursuit of philosophy). And since the creative virtue is endued with philosophy, being both philosophical and royal, so also the world itself is philosophical.

Some persons however have fancied that it is the sun which is indicated by the flaming sword; because, by its constant revolutions and turnings every way, it marks out the seasons of the year, as being the guardian of human life and of every thing which serves to the life of all men.

"Whether it was properly said with respect to Cain : " I have gotten a man from the Lord ?"

58. Here there is a distinction made, as to — from some one, and out of some one, and by some thing. Out of some one, as out of materials ; from some one, as from a cause ; and by some thing, as by an instrument. But the Father and Creator of all the world is not an instrument, but a cause. Therefore he wanders from right wisdom who says, " That what has been made has been made, not from God, but by God."

Why the sacred historian first describes the employment of the younger brother, Abel, saying : " He was a keeper of sheep ; but Cain was a cultivator of the earth ?"t

59. Since, although the virtuous son was in point of time younger than the wicked son, yet in point of virtue he was older. On which account, on the present occasion, when their actions are to be compared together, he is placed first. Therefore one of them exercises a business, and takes care of living creatures, although they are devoid of reason, gladly taking upon himself the employment of a shepherd, which is a princely office, and as it were a sort of rehearsal of royal power ; but the other devotes his attention to earthly and inanimate objects.

Why Cain after some days offers up the first-fruits of his fruits, but when it is said that "Abel offered up first-fruits of the first-born of his flock and of the fat,"* "after some days" is not added ?

60. Moses here intimates the difference between a lover of himself, and one who is thoroughly devoted to God ; for the one took to himself the first-fruits of his fruits, and very impiously looked upon God as worthy only of the secondary and inferior offerings ; for the expression, "after some days," implies that he did not do so immediately ; and when it is said that he offered of the fruits, that intimates that he did not offer of the best fruits which he had, and herein displays his iniquity.

But the other, without any delay, offered up the first-born and eldest of all his flocks, in order that in this the Father might not be treated unworthily.

"Why, when he had begun with Cain, he still mentions him here in the second place, when he says : " And God had respect unto Abel and unto his offerings ; but unto Cain and unto his sacrifices he paid no attention ?"t

61. In the first place, because the good man, who is by nature first, is not at first perceived by the outward senses of any man except in his own turn, and by people of virtuous conduct. Secondly, because the good and the wicked man are two distinct characters ; he accepts the good man, seeing thathe is a lover of what is good, and an eager student of virtue ; but he rejects and regards with aversion the wicked man, presuming that he will be prone to that side by the

order of nature. Therefore he says here with exceeding fitness, that God had regard, not to the offerings, but to those who offered them, rather than to the gifts themselves ; for men have regard to and regulate their approbation by the abundance and richness of offerings, but God looks at the sincerity of the soul, having no regard to ambition or illusion of any kind.

"What is the meaning of the distinction here made between a gift and a sacrifice ?

62. The man who slays a sacrifice, after having made a division, pours the blood around the altar and takes the flesh home ; but he who offers it as a gift, offers as it should seem the whole to him who accepts it. Therefore, the man who is a lover of self is a distributor, like Cain ; but he who is a lover of God is the giver of a free gift, as was Abel.

How it was that Cain became aware that his offering had not pleased God ?f

63. Perhaps he resolved his doubts, an additional cause being added, for sorrow seized upon him and his countenance fell. Therefore, he took the sorrow which he felt as an indication that he had been sacrificing what was not pleasing or approved of, when joy and happiness would have teen suited to one who was sacrificing with purity of heart and spirit.

"Why is it that the expression used is not, because you do not offer rightly ; but, because (or unless) you do not divide rightly ? +

64. In the first place, we must understand that right division and improper division are nothing else but order and the want of it. And it is by order that the universal world and its parts were made ; since the Creator of the world, when he began to arrange and regulate the previously untamed and unarranged power which was liable to suffering, employed section and division. For he placed the heavy elements which were prone to descend downwards by their own nature, namely, the earth and the water, in the centre of the universe ; but he placed the air and the fire at

318 ruiLO judjeus.

a greater altitude, as they were raised on high by reason of their lightness.

But separating and dividing the pure nature, namely heaven, he carried it round and diffused it over the universe, so that it should be completely invisible to all men ; containing within itself the whole universe in all its parts.

Again, the statement that animals and plants are produced out of seeds, some moist and some dry, what else does it mean but the inevitable dissection and separation of distinction ? Therefore it follows inevitably, that this order and arrangement of the universe must be imitated in all things, especially in feeling and acknowledging gratitude ; by which we are invited to requite in some degree and manner the kindnesses of those who have showered greater benefits liberally on us. Moreover, to pay one's thanks to God is an action which is intrinsically right in itself: and it is not to be disapproved of that he should receive the offerings due to him at the earliest moment, and fresh gifts from the first-fruits of every thing, not being dishonoured by any negligence on our part. Since it is not fitting that man should reserve for himself the first and most excellent things which are created, and should offer what is only second best to the allwise Grod and Creator ; for that division would be faulty and blameworthy, showing a most preposterous and unnatural arrangement.

What is the meaning of the expression : " Tou have done

65. He is here giving very useful advice ; since, to do no wrong at all is the greatest of all good things : but he who sins, and who thus blushes and is overwhelmed with shame, is near akin to him, being, if I may use such a phrase, as the younger brother to the elder ; for those persons who pride themselves on their errors as if they had not done wrong, are afflicted with a disease which is difficult to cure, or rather which is altogether incurable.

Why he seems to be giving what is good into the hand of a wicked man, when he savs, " And unto thee shall be his desire ?"t

66. He does not deliver good into his hand; but the expression is heard with different feelings ; since he is speaking, not of a pious man, but after the action is accomplished, saying of him : The desire and respect of the impiety of this man's wickedness will be towards you. Do not therefore talk about necessity, but about your own habits, in order that thus he may represent the voluntary action.

And again, the sentence, "And you shall be his ruler over him," has a reference to the operation. In the first place, you begin to act with wickedness ; and now behold, another iniquity follows that great and injurious iniquity. Therefore, he both thinks and affirms that this is the principal part of all voluntary injury.

Why he slew his brother in the field ?

67. That as all infecundity and sterility arises from a neglect of sowing and planting land a second time, he may be kept continually in mind of his wicked murder, and selfblamed for it ; since the ground was not to be the same for the future, after it was compelled, contrary to its nature, to drink of human blood, to bring forth food to that man who imbued it with the polluted stain of blood.

Why he who knows all things asks the fratricide : " Where is thy brother Abel?" t

68. He puts this question to him because he wishes the man to confess voluntarily and spontaneously, of his own accord, so that he may not imagine that every thing is done out of necessity ; for he who had slain another through necessity, would have confessed unwillingly, as having done the deed unwillingly ; since that which does not depend upon ourselves does not deserve accusation ; but the man who has done wrong intentionally denies it ; for those who do wrong are liable to repentance. Therefore, he has interwoven this principle in all parts of his legislation, because the Deity himself is never the cause of evil.

Why he who had slain his brother makes answer as if he were replying to a man ; and says, " I do not know : am I my brother's keeper?" J

69. It is the opinion of an atheist to think that the eye of Grod does not penetrate through every thing, and behold all things at the same time ; piercing not only through what is visible, but also through every thing which lurks in the deepest and bottomless unfathomable abysses.

Suppose a person said to him, " How can you be ignorant where your brother is, and how is it that you do not know that, when as yet he is one out of the only four human beings which exist in the world? He being one with both his parents, and you his only brother." To this question the reply made is : "I am not my brother's keeper." 0 what a beautiful apology ! And whose keeper and protector ought you to have been, rather than your brother's ? But if you have excited your diligence to give effect to violence, and injury, and fraud, and homicide, which are the foulest and most abominable of actions, why did you consider the safety of your brother a secondary object ? "

What is the meaning of the expresssion, " The voice of thy brother's blood cries to me out of the earth ? "

70. This is especially an example by which to take warning; for the Deity listens to those who are worthy, although they be dead, knowing that they are alive as to an incorporeal life. But he averts his countenance from the prayers of the wicked, although they are living a flourishing life, inasmuch as he looks upon them as dead to any real life, carrying about their bodies like a sepulchre ; and having buried their miserable souls in it.

"Why he is said to be cursed upon the earth ? f

71. The earth is the last portion of the world, therefore if that utters curses, we must consider that the other elements do likewise pour forth adequate maledictions ; for instance, the fountains, and rivers, and sea, and the air, and the laud, and the fire, and the light, and the sun, and moon, and stars, and in short the whole heaven. For if inanimate and earthly nature, throwing off the yoke, wars against injury, why may not still rather those natures do so which are of a purer character ? But as for him, against whom the parts

of the world carry on war, what hope of safety he can have for the future, I know not.

What is the meaning of the curse, "You shall be groaning and trembling upon the earth?"

72. This also is a general principle ; for in all evils there are some things which are perceived immediately, and some which are felt at a later period ; for those which are future cause fear, and those which are felt at once bring sorrow.

What is the meaning of Cain saying, " My punishment is too great for you to dismiss me ? f

73. In truth there is no misery greater than to be deserted and despised by God ; for the anarchy of fools is cruel and very intolerable ; but to be despised by the great King, and to fall down as an abject person cast down from the government of the Supreme Power is an indescribable affliction.

What is the meaning of Cain, when he says, " Everyone who shall find me will kill me:" when there was scarcely another human being in the world except his parents ?J

74. In the first place he might have received injury from the parts of the world which indeed were made for the advantage of the good and that they might partake of them, but which nevertheless, derived from the wicked no slight degree of revenge. In the second place it may be that he said this, because he was apprehensive of injury from beasts, and reptiles ; for nature has brought forth these animals with the express object of their being instruments of vengeance on the wicked.

In the third place, some people may imagine that he is speaking with reference to his parents, on whom he had inflicted an unprecedented sorrow, and the first evil which had happened to them, before they knew what death was.

Why whoever should slay Cain should be liable to bear a sevenfold punishment ?§

75. As our soul consists of eight portions, being accustomed to be divided in its rational and irrational individuality

Genesis iv. 13. Our translation is, "My punishment is greater than I can bear."

VOL. IV. Y

iuto seven subordinate parts, namely into the five outward senses, and the instrument of vice, and the faculty of generation ; those seven parts exist among the causes of wickedness and evil, on which account they likewise fall under judgment ; but the death of the principal and dominant portion of man, namely of the mind, is principally the wickedness which exists in it. "Whoever therefore slays the mind, mingling in it folly, and insensibility, instead of sense, will cause dissolution also of the seven irrational parts ; since, just as _ the principal and leading part had a portion from virtue, in the s.me manner likew-ise are its subject divisions composed.

Why a sign is put on him who had slain his brother, that no one should kill him who found him : when it would have been natural to do the contrary, namely, to give him over to the hands of an executioner to be put to death ?

76. This is said because, in the first place, the change of the nature of living is one kind of death ; but continual sorrow and unmixed fear are destitute of joy and devoid of all good hope, and so they bring on many terrible and various evils which are so many sensible deaths.

In the second place, the sacred historian designs at the very beginning of his work to enunciate the law about the incorruptibility of the soul, and to confute as deceitful those who look upon the life which is contained in this body as the only happy life ; for behold one of the two brothers is guilty of those enormous crimes which have already been mentioned, namely, impiety and fratricide ; and he is still alive, and begetting offspring, and building cities. But the other who was praised in respect of his piety is treacherously put to death ; while the voice of the Lord not only clearly cries out that that existence which is perceptible by the outward senses is not good, and that such a death is not evil, but also that that life which is in the flesh is not life, but that there is another given to man free from old age, and more immortal, which the incorporeal souls have received ; for that expression of the poet about Scylla,

" That is not mortal but an endless woe," f t The line occurs, Homer, Odyss. xii. 118.

i) St 7oi ov bV;jr/) dk\' aOdt/arov Kaicoi' tarcv,

is asserted in the same familiarity about a person who lives ill and passes a long life for many years in the practice of "wickedness.

In the third place, since Cain had perpetrated this fratricide of enormous guilt above all other crimes, he' presents himself to him, quite forgetful of the injury that he has done, imposing on all judges a most peaceful law for the first crime; not that they are not to destroy malefactors, but that resting for a while with great patience and long suffering, they shall study compassion rather than severity.

But God himself, with the most perfect wisdom, has laid down the rule of familiarity and intelligence with reference to the first sinner : not slaying the homicide, but destroying him in another manner ; since he scarcely permitted him to be enumerated among the generations of his father, but shows him proscribed not only by his parents but by the whole race of mankind, allotting him a state separate from that of others, and secluded from the class of rational animals, as one who had been expelled, and banished, and turned into the nature of beasts.

"Why Lamech, after the fifth generation, blames himself for the fratricide of his elder Cain ; saying, as the scripture reports, to his wives, Adah and Zillah ; " I have slain a man to my injury and a young man to my hurt ; since if vengeance is taken upon Cain sevenfold, it shall certainly be taken on Lamech seventy and sevenfold ? "

77. In numerals one is before ten, both in order and in virtue, for it is the first beginning and element and measure of all things. But the number ten is subsequent, and is measured by the other, being inferior to it, both in order and virtue ; therefore, also, the number seven is antecedent in its origin to and more ancient than the number seventy, but the number seventy is younger than the number seven, and contains the calculation of generations.

These premises being laid down, he who first committed sin, as if he had been really always ignorant of evil, like the first odd number, namely, the \init, is chastised more simply ; but the second offender, because he had the first for an example, so that there cannot possibly be any excuse

made for him, is guilty of a voluntary crime, and because he did not receive honourable wisdom from that more simple punishment, the consequence will be that he will both suffer all that first punishment, and will, moreover, receive this second one, which is contained in the number ten.

For as in the horse-races they pay the groom who has trained the horse twice as great a reward as they give to the driver, so some wicked men, inclined to acts of iujustice, gain the miserable triumph of victory and then are punished with a double punishment, both by the first one which is contained in the unit, and also by the second which is contained in the number ten ; besides, Cain being the author of a homicide, when he was ignorant of the greatness of the pollution which he was incurring, because no death had hitherto taken place in the world, suffered a more simple punishment, namely, only a sevenfold penalty in the order of the unit ; but as his imitator could not take refuge in the same plea of ignorance, he ought to be subjected to a twofold punishment, not only to one equal and similar to that which had been inflicted on the first offender, but also another, which should be the seventh among the decades. In truth, according to the law, the trial which is before the tribunal i3 a sevenfold one ; first of all, the eyes are put on their trial, because they beheld what was not lawful; secondly, the ears are impeached, because they heard what they ought not to have heard ; thirdly, the smell is brought into question, as having been reduced by smoke and vapour ; fourthly, the taste is accused, as being subservient to the pleasures of the belly ; fifthly, a charge is brought against the taste, by means of which, besides the operations of the senses above-mentioned, in respect of those things which prevail over the spirit, other things, also, are superadded separately, such as the takings of cities, the captivities of men. the destructions of those citadels of cities in which wisdom dwells ; sixthly, an accusation is urged against the tongue and other instruments of speech, for being silent as to what should be spoken of, and speaking of what should be buried in silence ; and, in the seventh place, the lower part of the belly is impeached for inflaming and exciting the passions by immoderate lust.

This is the meaning of that expression, according to which a sevenfold vengeance was taken upon Cain, but a seventy

and sevenfold vengeance upon Lamech for the causes above mentioned, because he was the second offender, not having been taught by the punishment of the first delinquent, and therefore he is altogether worthy to receive his punishment, which is the more simple one, like the unit in numerals, and, also, a manifold punishment too equal to the number ten.

"Why Adam, when he begat Seth, introduces him saying, " God has raised up for me another seed in the place of Abel whom Cain slew ? "

78. In real truth Seth is another seed and the beginning of a second nativity of Abel, in accordance with a certain natural principle ; for Abel is like to one who comes down below from above, on which account it was that he perished injuriously ; but Seth resembles one who is proceeding upwards from below, on which account he also increases. And in proof of this argument Abel is explained as having been brought back and offered upwards to God. But it is not proper that everything should be raised and borne upwards, but only that which is good, for God is in no respect whatever the cause of evil.

Therefore, whatever is indistinct and uncertain, and mingled, and in confusion and disorder, has also, very properly, blame and praise mingled together : praise, because it honours the cause, and blame, since as the occurrence happened fortuitously, so it is without any plans having been formed or any gratitude expressed. Moreover, nature also separated the two sons from him ; it rendered the good one worthy of immortality, resolving him into a voice interceding with God ; but the wicked one it gave over to corruption.

But the name Seth is interpreted u watered," according to the variation of plants which grow by being watered, and put forth shoots and bear fruit. But these things are the symbols of the soul, so that it is not lawful to assert that the Divinity is the cause of all things equally, of the bad as well as of the good, but only of the good, and that alone ought to be planted alive.

Why Enos, the son of Seth, hoped to call upon the name of the Lord God ?t

Genesis iv. 2fi. t Genesis iv. 2G.

79. The name Enos is interpreted "man;" and it is received as meaning, not the whole of the comhined man, but as the rational part of the soul, namely, the intellect, to which it is peculiarly becoming to hope, for irrational animals are devoid of hope ; but hope is a sort of presage of joy, and before joy there is an expectation of good things.

"Why, after the mention of hope, Moses says, " This is the book of the generations of men ? "

80. It is by this that he made what has been said before worthy of belief. What is man ? Man is a being which, beyond all other races of animals, has received a copious and wonderful portion of hope ; and this is as it were inscribed on his very nature, and celebrated there ; for the human intellect hopes by its own nature.

Why, in the genealogy of Adam, Moses no longer mentions Cain, but only Seth, who, he says, was according to his appearance and form ; on which account he proceeds to retain the generations which descend from him in his genealogy ?t

81. It can neither be lawful to enumerate a wicked and sinful murderer either in the list of reason or in that of number ; for he must be cast out like dung, as some one said, looking upon him as one of such a character ; and on this account the sacred historian neither points him out as the successor of his father who had been formed out of the dust, nor as the head of succeeding generations ; but he distributes both these characteristics to him who was without pollution, and names Seth, who is a drinker of water, as having been watered by his father, and as begetting hope in his own increase and progress ; on which account it is not inconsiderately and foolishly that he says that he was born according to the form and appearance of his father, to the reproof of his elder brother, who, on account of the foulness of the murder which he had committed, has nothing in him resembling his father, either in body or soul.

And on this account Moses has separated him from the

family, and has given his share to his brother, being the noble' privilege of the birthright of the first-born.

"What is the meaning of the verse, Enoch pleased God after he begat Methuselah, two hundred years ?

82. God appointed by the law the fountains of all good things to be uuder the principles of generation itself And what I mean is something of this sort. A little while before he appointed mercy and pardon to exist, now again he decrees that penitence shall exist, not in any degree mocking or reproaching these men, who are believed to have offended, and at the same time giving the soul an opportunity to mount up from wickedness to virtue, like the conversion of those who are proceeding towards a snare. Eor behold, the man being made a husband and a father together with his birth, makes a beginning of honesty.

And he is said to please God, for although he does not persevere in piety from the moment that he is born, nevertheless, all that remaining period is counted to him as having been spent in a praiseworthy mode of life, because he pleased God for so many years. And these things are said, not because it perhaps was, but it might perhaps have seemed different; but he approves of the order of things, for indulgence having been exemplified, in this case of Gain, after no long interval of time, he introduces this statement, that Enoch practised repentance, warning us by it that repentance alone can procure indulgence.

"Why Enoch, who cultivated repentance, is said to have lived before his repentance a hundred and sixty-five years, but two hundred after his repentance ?f

83. This number of a hundred and sixty-five is combined of the singular addition of ten numbers from the unit to ten ; as one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, the total of which is fifty-five. And again, from that by the addition of ten numbers, which, removing the unit proceed upwards by twos, as two, four, six, eight, ten, twelve, fourteen, sixteen, eighteen, twenty, which make a

f Ibid. This is at variance with the statement in the Bible, which says he lived sixty-five years before the birth of Methuselah, and walked with God three hundred years.

hundred and ten ; the combination of which, with the numbers first mentioned, produces a hundred and sixty-five ; and in this addition the even numbers amount to twice as much as the odd numbers ; for the woman is more violent than the man, in the preposterous manner in which the wicked man rules over the virtuous man, the outward sense over the mind, the body over the outward sense, and matter over its cause.

But the number two hundred, in which repentance was practised, is combined of two numbers of one hundred, the first hundred of which intimates a purification from injustice, but the other indicates the plenitude of perfect virtue. In truth, before anything else is done, the first thing is to cut off from a sick body every diseased part, and after that means of cure are to be applied to it, for this is the first step, and the other the second. Moreover, the number two hundred consists of fours, for it is produced as from seed, from four triangular numbers, and from four tetragons, and from four pentagons, and from four hexagons, and from four heptagons ; and, as one may say, it fixes its step on the number seven. Now the four triangles are these, one, three, six, ten, which make twenty ; the four tetragons are one, four, nine, sixteen, which make thirty ; from the four pentagons, one, five, twelve, twenty-two, is made the number forty. Moreover, the four hexagons, one, six, fifteen, twenty-eight, make fifty ; and the four heptagons, one, seven, eighteen, thirty-four, make sixty ; and all these numbers put together make two hundred.

Why the man who lives a life of repentance is said to have lived three hundred and sixty-five years?

84. In the first place, the year contains three hundred and sixty-five days ; therefore, by the symbol of the solar orbit, the sacred historian here indicates the life of the repentant man. In the second place, as the sun is the cause of day and night, performing his revolutions by day above the hemisphere of the earth, and his course by night under the earth, so also the life of the man of repentance consists of alternations of light and darkness ; of darkness, that is, of times of agitation and circumstances of injury ; and of light, when the light of virtue and its radiant brilliancy arises.

In the third place, he lias assigned to him a complete number, as the sun is ordained to be the chief of the stars of heaven, under an appointed number, in the time which came before the period of his repentance, to lead to the oblivion of the sins previously committed ; since, as God is good, he bestows the greatest favours most abundantly, and, at the same time, he effaces the former offences of those who devote themselves to him, and which might deserve chastisement, by a recollection of their virtues.

Why, when Enoch died, the sacred historian adds the assertion, " He pleased God?"

85. In the first place, he says this because, by such a statement, he implies that the soul is immortal, inasmuch as after it is stripped of the body, it still pleases a second time.

In the second place, he honours the repentant man with praise, because he ha3 persevered in the same alteration of manners, and has never receded till he has arrived at complete perfection of life ; for behold, some men appear to be readily sated after they have only tasted of excellence ; and after a hope of recovery has been given to them, they relapse again into the same disease.

What is the meaning of the expression, " He was not found because God translated him ?"f

86. In the first place, the end of virtuous and holy men is not death but a translation and migration, and an approach to some other place of abode.

In the second place, in this instance something marvellous did take place ; for he was supposed to be carried off in such a way as to be invisible, for then he was not found : and a proof of this is, that he was sought for as being invisible, not only as having been carried away from their sight, since translation into another place is nothing else than a placing of a person in another situation ; but it is here suggested, that he was translated from a visible place, perceptible by the outward senses, into an incorporeal idea, appreciable only by the intellect. This mercy also was bestowed on the great prophet, for his sepulchre also was known to no one.

And besides these two there -was another, Elijah, whc

ascended from the things of earth into heaven, according to the divine appearance which was then presented to him, and who thus followed higher things, or, to speak with more exact propriety, was raised up to heaven.

How it was that immediately upon the nativity of Noah his father says, " He will make us rest from labours and sorrows, and from the earth, which the Lord God has cursed ?"

87. The fathers of the saints did not prophesy except for grave reasons and on important occasions ; for although those who were rendered worthy of prophetical panegyric did not prophecy at all times or on all subjects, they did so at all events on one occasion and on one subject, with which they were acquainted. Nor is this of no importance, but it is an emblem and an example, since Noah is a kind of surname of righteousness, of which, when the intellect is made a partaker, it causes us to rest from all wicked works, and releases us from sorrows and from fears, and renders us secure and joyful.

It also causes us to rest from that earthly nature which has been previously laid under a curse, which this body, when affected by pain, is connected with, especially in those persons who give cause for it, and who wear out their lives with pleasure. Nevertheless, if we examine attentively the events and circumstances, and compare them with the letter of the scriptures, the prophecy which has been already produced is deceived, because, in the time of this man, there did not arise any putting down of evils, but a more vehement obstinacy in sin and great afflictions, and the unprecedented event of the deluge. But you must note carefully, that Noah is the tenth in generation from the earth-born Adam.

What is meant by the three sons of Noah being named Shem, Ham, and Japhet?

88. These names are the symbols of three human things, what is good, what is bad, and what is indifferent ; Shem is the symbol of what is good, Ham of what is bad, and Japhet of what is indifferent.

Why from the time that the deluge drew near, the human race is said to have increased so as to become a multitude ? J

89. Divine mercies do always precede judgment ; since

the first work of God is to do good, and to destroy follows afterwards ; but he himself (when terrible evils are about to happen) loves to provide and is accustomed to provide that previously an abundance of many and great blessings shall be produced. On this principle also Egypt, when there was about to be a barrenness and famine for seven years as the prophet himself says,* was for an equal number of years continuously made exceedingly fertile by the beneficent and saving power of the Creator of the universe.

And in the same way in which he showers benefits upon men, he also teaches them to depart and to abstain from sin ; that these blessings may not be turned into the contrary. And on this account now, by the freedom of their institutions, the cities of the world have increased in generous virtue, so that if any corruption supervenes subsequently they may disapprove of their own acts of wickedness as extraordinary and irremediable ; not at all looking upon the divinity as the cause of them, for that has no connection with wickedness or misery, for the task of the Deity is only to bestow blessings.

What is the meaning of the expression, " My spirit shall not always strive with man, because he is but flesh? " t

90. An oracle is here promulgated as if it were a law ; for the divine spirit is not a motion of the air, but intellect and wisdom ; just as it also flows over the man who with great skill constructed the tabernacle of the Lord, namely upon Bezaleel, when the scripture says, " And he filled him with the divine spirit of wisdom and understanding." Therefore that spirit comes upon men, but does not abide or persevere in them ; and the Lord himself adds the reason, wdien he says, " Because they are flesh." For the disposition of the flesh is inconsistent with wisdom, inasmuch as it makes a bond of alliance with desire ; on which account it is evident that nothing important can be in the way of incorporeal and light souls, or can be any hindrance to their discerning and comprehending the condition of nature, because a pure disposition is acquired together with constancy.

Why it is said that the days of man shall be a hundred and twenty years ? J

91. God appears here to fix the limit of human life by

this number, indicating by it the manifold prerogative of honour ; for in the first place this number proceeds from the units, according to combination, from the number fifteen : but the principle of the number fifteen is that of a more transparent appearance, since it is on the fifteenth day that the moon is rendered full of light, borrowing its light of the sun at the approach of evening, and restoring it to him again in the morning ; so that during the night of the full moon the darkness is scarcely visible, but it is all light.

In the second place, the number a hundred and twenty is a triangular number, and is the fifteenth number consisting of triangles.

Thirdly, it is so because it consists of a combination of odd and even numbers, being contained by the power of the faculty of the concurring numbers, sixty-four and fifty-six ; for the equal number of sixty-four is compounded of the uniting of these eight odd numbers, one, three, five, seven, nine, eleven, thirteen, fifteen ; the reduction of which, by their parts into squares, makes a sum total of sixty-four, and that is a cube, and at the same time a square number.

But again from the seven double units there arises the unequal number of fifty-six, being compounded of seven double pairs, which generate other productions of them, two, four, six, eight, ten, twelve, fourteen ; the sum total of which is fifty-six.

In the fourth place, it is compounded of four numbers, of one triangle, namely fifteen ; and of another square, namely twenty-five ; and of a third quinquangular figure, thirty-five ; and of a fourth a sexangular figure forty-five, by the same analogy : for the fifth is always received according to each appearance ; for from the unity of the triangles the fifth number becomes fifteen ; again the fifth of the quadrangular number from the unit makes twenty-five ; and the fifth of the quinquangular number from the unit makes thirty-five ; and the fifth of the sexangular number from the unit makes forty-five.

But every one of these numbers is a divine and sacred number, consisting of fifteens as has been already shown ; and the number twenty-five belongs to the tribe of Levi.* And the number thirty-five comes from the double diagram of arithmetic, geometry, and harmony ; but sixteen, and eighteen, * See Numbers viii. 24.

and nineteen, and twenty-one, the combination of which numbers amounts to seventy-four, is that according to which seven months' children are born. And forty-five consists of a triple diagram ; but to this number, sixteen, nineteen, twentytwo, and twenty-eight, belong : the combination of which makes eighty-five, according to which nine months' children are produced.

Fifthly, this diagram has fifteen parts, and a twofold composition, peculiarly belonging to itself ; forsooth when divided by two it gives sixty, the measure of the age of all mankind ; when divided by three it gives forty, the idea of prophecy ; when divided by four it gives thirty, a nation ; when divided by five, it makes twenty-four, the measure of day and night ; when divided by six, it gives twenty, a beginning ; when divided by eight, we have fifteen, the moon in the fulness of brilliancy ; when divided by ten, it makes twelve, the zodiac embellished with living animals ; when divided by twelve, it makes ten, holy ; when divided by fifteen, it gives eight, the first ark ; when divided by twenty, it leaves six, the number of creation ; when divided by twenty-four, it makes five, the emblem of the outward sense ; when divided by thirty it makes four, the beginning of solid measure ; when divided by forty, it gives three, the symbol of fulness, the beginning, the middle, and the end ; when divided by sixty, it makes two, which is woman ; and when divided by the whole number of a hundred and twenty, the product is one, or man.

And every one of all these numbers is more natural, as is proved in each of them, but the composition of them is twofold, for the product is two hundred and forty, which is a sign that it is worthy of a twofold life ; for as the number of years is doubled, so also we may imagine that the life is doubled too ; one being in connection with the body, the other being detached from the body, according to which every holy and perfect man may receive the gift of prophecy.

Sixthly, because the fifth and sixth figures arise, the three numbers being multiplied together, three times four times five, since three times four times five make sixty ; so in like manner the next following numbers four times five times six make a hundred and twenty, for four times five times six make a hundred and twenty.

Seventhly, when the number twenty has been taken in, which is the beginning of the reduction of mankind, I mean twenty, and being added to itself two or three times, so as to make twenty, forty, and sixty, these added together make a hundred and twenty. But perhaps the number a hundred and twenty is not the general term of human life, but only of the life of those men who existed at that time, and who were to perish by the deluge after an interval of so many years, which their kind Benefactor prolonged, giving them space for repentance ; when, after the aforesaid term, they lived a longer time in the subsequent ages.

On what principle it was that giants were born of angels and women ?

92. The poets call those men who were born out of the earth giants, that is to say, sons of the earth. f But Moses here uses this appellation improperly, and he uses it too very often merely to denote the vast personal size of the principal men, equal to that of Hajkf or Hercules.

But he relates that these giants were sprung from a combined procreation of two natures, namely, from angels and mortal women ; for the substance of angels is spiritual ; but it occurs every now and then that on emergencies occurring they have imitated the appearance of men, and transformed themselves so as to assume the human shape ; as they did on this occasion, when forming connexions with women for the production of giants. But if the children turn out imitators of the wickedness of their mothers, departing from the virtue of their fathers, let them depart, according to the determination of the will of a depraved race, and because of their proud contempt for the supreme Deity, and so be condemned as guilty of voluntary and deliberate wickedness.

But sometimes Moses style* the angels the sons of God. inasmuch as they were not produced by any mortal, but are incorporeal, as being spirits destitute of any body; or rather that exhorter and teacher of virtue, namely Moses, calls those

+ the Greek name riyag is said to be derived from yrj and yivvaw, " to bring forth."

X Hajk is an addition of the Armenian translator ; it ie the name of a fabulous patriarch of the Armeuiaj na.ion.

QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS. 33.r>

men who are very excellent and endowed with great virtue the sons of God ; and the wicked and depraved men he calls bodies, or flesh.

What is the meaning of the expression : " God considered anxiously, because he had made man upon the earth ; and he resolved the matter in his mind?"

93. Some persons imagine that it is intimated bv these words that the Deity repented ; but they are very wrong to entertain such an idea, since the Deity is unchangeable. Nor are the facts of his cariug and thinking about the matter, and of his agitating it in his mind, any proofs that he is repenting, but only indications of a kind and determinate counsel, according to which he displays care, revolving in his mind the cause why he had made man upon the earth.

But since this earth is a place of misery, even that heavenlv being, man, who is a mixture compounded of soul and body. from the very hour of his birth to that of bis death, is nothing else but the slave of the body. That the Deity therefore should meditate and deliberate on these matters is nothing surprising ; since most men take to themselves wickedness rather than virtue, being influenced by the twofold impulse mentioned above : namely, that of a body by its nature corruptible, and placed in the terrible situation of earth, which is the lowest of all places.

Why God. after having threatened to destroy mankind, says that he will also destroy all the beasts likewise ; using the expression, "from man to beast, \ and from creeping things to flying creatures : " for how could irrational animals have committed sin ?

94. This is the literal statement of the holv scripture, and it informs us that animals were not necessarily and in their primary cause created for their own sake, but for the sake of mankind and to act as the servants of men ; and when the men were destroyed, it followed necessarily and naturally that they also should be destroyed with them, as soon as the men, for whose sake they had been made, had ceased to exist.

Genesi; vi. t>. TLe translation of our bible is, "It repented God that ! e had made man upon the earth." t Genesis vi. 7.

But as to the hidden meaning conveyed by the statement, since man is a symbol for the intellect winch exists in us, and animals for the outward sense, when the chief creature has first been depraved and corrupted by wickedness, all the outward sense also perishes with him, because he had no relics whatever of virtue, which is the cause of salvation.

Why God says, I am indignant that I made them?

95. In the first place, Moses is here again relating what took place, as if he were speaking of some illustrious action of man, but, properly speaking, God does not feel anger, but is exempt from, and superior to, all such perturbations of spirit. Therefore Moses wishes here to point out, by an extravagant form of expression, that the iniquities of man had grown to such a height, that they stirred up and provoked to anger even that very Being who by his nature was incapable of anger.

In the second place he warns us, by a figure, that foolish actions are liable to punishment, but that those which proceed from wise and deliberate counsel are praiseworthy.

Why it is afterwards said, that Noah found grace in the sight of the Lord ? f

96. In the first place, the time calls for a comparison ; since all the rest of mankind has been rejected for their ingratitude, he places the just man in the place of them all, asserting that he had found favour with God, not because he alone was deserving of favour, when the whole universal body of the human race had had benefits and mercies heaped on them, but because he alone had seemed to be mindful of the kindnesses which he had received.

In the second place, when the whole generation had been given over to destruction, with the exception of one single family, it followed inevitably that that remaining household should be asserted to have shown itself worthy of the divine grace, that it might be, as it were, a seed and spark of a new race of mankind. And what could be a greater grace and mercy than that the man, of whom this is said, should be at the same time the end and beginning of the family of mankind ?

Why does Moses enumerate the generations of Noah with reference not to his ancestors but to his virtues ?

97. He does this in the first place, because all the men of that age were wicked : secondly, he is here imposing a law upon tbe will, because, to an anxious follower of virtue, virtue itself stands in the place of a real generation, if indeed men are the means of the generation of men, but the virtues of minds. And on this account it is that he says, he was a just man, perfect, and one who pleased God ; but justice, and perfection, and grace before God, are the greatest of virtues.

What was the meaning of Moses when he says, " And all the earth was corrupt in the sight of God, and the earth was filled with iniquity ?"f

98. Moses himself has given us the reason why he speaks thus, in the sentence in which he asserts that iniquity had arisen by reason of the corruption of the earth ; for deliverance from iniquity is righteousness, both in all the parts of the world, in heaven, that is, and earth, and among men.

What is the meaning of his saying, " All flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth ?"$

99. In the first place, the sacred historian calls the man who is devoted to the love of himself, flesh; therefore, when he had already said he was flesh, he introduces not the same flesh, but the flesh of the same being, namely, of man, or perhaps he is speaking even of man abstractedly considered ; for every one who passes a life destitute of all civilisation, and bewildered by intemperance, is flesh.

In the second place, he supposes here the cause of spiritual corruption to be, as in truth it is, the flesh, because that is the seat of desire ; and from it, as from a living spring, arise all the peculiar appetites, and passions, and other affections.

In the third place, he very naturally says, that all flesh had corrupted his way ; for " his" is a partial case, declined from the nominative case of the pronoun " he, she, or it ;" for as for the being to whom we refer honour, we scarcely dare to speak of him by his own name, but we call him He. And it is from this that the principle of the Pythagorean philosophers was derived, who said, " He said it," speaking of their master in a

VOL. IV. Z

glorious manner, since they feared to speak of him by name. And the same custom has obtained in cities and in private houses ; for the servants, when speaking of the arrival of their master, say, " Here he comes ;" and so when the prince of any individual city arrives, they use the same form of speech, " He comes," when they speak of him.

But what is the purpose of this prolix enumeration of all these instances on my part? The truth is, that I wished to show that it is the Father of the universe who is spoken of here ; since, indeed, all his good qualities, and all his marvellous names, are widely celebrated by the praise bestowed upon the virtues ; and, therefore, out of reverence he has used tbat name more cautiously, because he was about to bring on the world the destruction of the flood ; but the case of the pronoun " He" is used by way of honour in these phrases. " Ail flesh had corrupted His way," inasmuch as it is truly convicted of having corrupted the way of the Father, in accordance with the lusts, and desires, and pleasures of the body ; for these are the enemies and opposers of the laws of continence, and parsimony, and chastity, and fortitude, and justice ; by which the road which leads to God is found out and widened, so that it should everywhere be a beaten and plain road.

What is the meaning of the statement, "All the time of man has come against me, because the earth is filled with iniquity?"

100. Those who resist the order of fate proceed upon these and many other arguments, especially in that of sudden death, which oftentimes produces great slaughter in a short period of time ; as, for instance, in the overthrow of houses, in conflagrations, in shipwrecks, in civil tumults, in battles of cavalry, in wars by land and in wars by sea, and in pestilences. To all those who advance arguments of this kind we repeat the same assertions which are here made by the prophet, on the principle which is derived from himself. If indeed that expression, "All the time of man has come against me," has a meaning of this kind, the term which has been determined as the period of living for all mankind, behold it is now brought to one point and terminated at once by the deluge ; and since this is the case, they will not live any longer according to the

Genesis vi. 13. The version given here does not in the least resemble that in our Bible.

principle of fate which has been fixed ; so that the time of each separate individual is now reduced to one, and has received its destined termination at the same time, by I know not what harmony and periodical revolution of the stars, by which bodies the whole race of mankind is continually preserved or destroyed. Let those, therefore, all receive these things in any manner in which they choose who study these things, and those too who argue against them.

Nevertheless we must first of all make this statement, that nothing can be found so contrary to, so opposite to, so wholly repugnant to, the wonderful virtue of the Deity as iniquity ; therefore, after he said, " All the time of all mankind has come up against me," he adds also the reason of its contrariety to him, that the earth is filled with iniquity.

In the second place, Time, under the name of Chronos or Saturn, is looked upon as a god by the wickedest of men, who are desirous to lose sight of the one essential Being, on which account he says, " The time of all mankind has come up against me," because in fact the heathen make human time into a god, and oppose him to the real true God. But, however, it is now insinuated, in other passages also of scripture, which run thus, " Time has departed to a distance from them, but the Lord is in us :"* just as if he were to say, time is looked upon by wicked men as the cause of the world, but by wise men and virtuous men time is not looked upon in this light, but God only, from whom all times and seasons do proceed.

Again, God is the cause, not of all things, but only of good things and good men, and of those men and things which are in accordance with virtue ; for as he is free from all wickedness, so likewise he cannot be the cause of it.

In the third place, by that expression which he uses in this manner, he indicates the excess of impiety, saying, " that the time of all mankind has arrived," that is to say, that all men, in every part of the world, have agreed together, with one mind, to work wickedness ; but the other assertion which is here made, that the whole earth is filled with iniquity, amounts to this, that there is no part of it whatever free from wickedness, and which is also to receive and to bear righteousness.

Numbers xiv. 9. Compare with this Isaiah viii., Jeremiah xlvi.

And the expression, " against me," establishes the proof of what has been said, inasmuch as it is only the judgment of divine election which is altogether firm and lasting.

QUESTIONS, AND SOLUTIONS TO THOSE QUESTIONS, WHICH ARISE IN GENESIS.

BOOK II.

What is the preparation of Noah ?

1. If any one should wish to make an examination of the question of that ark of Noah's on more natural principles, he will find it to have been the preparation of the human body, as we shall see by the examination of each particular respecting it separately.

Why does he make the ark of squared pieces of wood. ?f

2. He does this in the first place, because the figure of a square, wherever it may be placed, is steady and firm, consisting as it does of right angles, and it is confirmed in a purer and clearer manner by the nature of the human body.

In the second place, he does this because, although our body is an instrument, and although every portion of it is rounded off, nevertheless the limbs which are compounded of all these portions do, by some manner or other, evidently reduce that circular orb to the figure of a quadrangle or square. For example, take the breast which is rather square than circular; in the same manner take the belly, after it is swollen with food or by any natural excess, for there are some men potbellied by nature, who are to be excepted from our present argument. But if any one looks upon the arms and hands, and back and thighs, and feet of a man, he will find all these limbs compounded of a mixture of the square, with the circular figure at the same time.

In the third place, a quadrangular piece of wood shows in its extension nearly every sort imaginable of uneven distinction, inasmuch as its length is greater than its breadth, and its breadth greater than its depth. And such also is the formation of our bodies, which are compounded of one extension

which is great, of another which is of moderate size, of another which is small, great in its length and small in its depth.

Why does God say, you shall make the ark in nests ?

3. He gives this order very naturally, for the human body is formed of holes like nests ; every one of which is nourished and grows like a young bird, a certain spiritual force which exists in it from its earliest origin penetrating through it, as, for instance, some of the holes and nests are the eyes, in which the faculty of sight has its abode ; other nests are the ears, which are the place where hearing is situated. A third class of nests are the nostrils, in which the sense of smell is lodged. The fourth nest, which is of larger dimensions than those already mentioned, is the mouth, which is the seat of the taste ; and it has been made of large size, since, besides taste, there is also another still more important instrument, which is that of articulate speech, reposing in it, namely, the tongue, which, as Socrates was wont to say, by beating in every direction in various manners, and by touching different parts, composes and forms a word, being, in truth, an instrument under the immediate guidance of reason.

And the nest is placed under the skull, and that which is called the membrane of the brain is a certain nest, as it were, of the genius of each man : as also the chest is a nest, in which abide the lungs and the heart, and both these things are receptacles of other internal organs ; the lungs being the place in which the power of breathing is lodged, and the heart being the abode of both the blood and the breath, for it has two venticles, which are, as it were, a certain kind of nests or receptacles in the breast; blood, from which the veins, as if they could perceive its operations, are irrigated ; and a breathing-hole, which again is extended over and irrigates the perceptive channels of respiration.

And both the harder as well as the softer parts do, like nests prepared for the purpose, nourish the bones as real nests nourish young birds ; the harder portion of which, namely, the marrow, is the nest, and the softer flesh is the nest of pleasure and pain ; and if any one should wish to investigate the other parts, he will find that, in every respect, the nature of man has much the same foundation as the ark.

Genesis vi. 14. The word hi our Bible is rooms, not nests.

Why does God command the ark to be smeared with pitch, both on the inside and on the outside ?

4. Pitch is so called by reason of its bird-lime like tenacity, because it glues together whatever was disunited before, so as to form one indissoluble and indivisible joint. For everything which is held together by bird-lime is immediately held to a natural union ; but our body being composed of many parts is united on the outside, and is held together by its own proper habit, but the previous habit of connection which binds those things together is the soul, which, being situated in the middle, penetrates through every part till it reaches the surface, and then is turned back again from the surface to the centre, so that our spiritual nature is rolled up compactly in a double fold, being united in a firm solidity and union.

Therefore this ark is smeared with pitch, both on the inside and the outside, for the reason here given.

But that ark which is placed in the holy of holies, and is covered over with gold, is the similitude of the world appreciable only by the intellect, as is declared in the account given of it : since just as there is a world appreciable by the intellect incarnate in incorporeal figures existing at the same time, consisting of a union of all figures by a certain invisible harmony ; for, in proportion as gold is a more noble material than pitch, in the same ratio is that ark, which is in the holy of holies, superior to this one of which we are now speaking.

And again, God ordained that its measure should be quadrangular, from a regard to usefulness ; but his object in the other ark was not so much that it should be useful as that it should be exempt from all possibility of decay ; for the nature of incorporeal things, appreciable only by the intellect, is to be exempt from decay, being incorruptible and permanent. The one ark is tossed to and fro by the winds and the waters, but the other has its station constantly in the holy of holies ; and being stable it is akin to divine nature, as the other, which is tossed about in every direction, and moved from one place to another, is akin to and the emblem of created nature. Besides this, that ark of the flood being, as it were, an example of corruption, is raised on high, but the other, which is in the holy of holies, imitates the incorruptible condition of eternity

Why did God give the measures of the ark in the following manner ; the length to be of three hundred cubits, and the breadth thereof to be fifty cubits, and the height to be thirty cubits : and above it was to be raised to a point in one cubit, being brought together gradually like an obelisk ?

5. It was necessary that so vast a work should be constructed in conformity with literal directions, in order that so many animals, some of them of vast size, should be received into it, as indviduals of each class were introduced with the food necessary for them ; but if the matter is considered properly with reference to its symbolical meaning, then, for the comprehension of the formation of our body, we shall require to make use not of the quantity of cubits, but of the certain principles and proportions which are observed in them.

But the proportions which are contained in them are of sixfold, and double, and other portions are added. For three hundred is six times as many as fifty, and ten times as many as thirty ; and again fifty is by two thirds a larger number than thirty. Such then are also the proportions of the body ; for if any one should choose to investigate the matter and inquire into it carefully in all its points, he will find that man is made in an exact proportion of measurement, neither being too long or too little ; and if a string be let down from his head to his feet, he will find that to reach that distance it requires a string six times as long as the width of his chest, and ten times as long as the depth of his ribs and thei r breadth as a second part of depth added thereto. Such is the certain proportion, received in accordance with nature, of the human body formed on exact measurement of the most excellently made men, who are incorrect neither in the way of excess nor of defect.

But again, it was with great wisdom and propriety that God ordained the summit to be completed in cne cubit ; for the upper part of the ark imitates the unity of the body ; the head being forsooth as the citadel of the king, having for its inhabitant the chief of all, the intellect.

But those parts which are below the head are divided into separate portions, as for instance into the hands, and in an especial degree into the lower parts, since the thighs, and legs,

844 PHILO JUCEUS.

and feet are all kept distinct from one another, therefore whoever should wish to understand these matters, on the principle which I have pointed out, will easily comprehend the analogy of the cubits as I have related it.

But above all things he must not be ignorant that each of these different numbers of cubits has separately a certain necessary proportion and principle, beginning with the first, those in the length of the ark. Therefore in its length it is composed of three hundred units, placed next to one another in continuation, according to the augmentation of units, from these twenty-four numbers, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twentyone, twenty-two, twenty-three, twenty-four. But the twentyfourth number is above all others a natural number, being distributed among the hours of day and night, and also among the characters of language,* and literal speech ; and it is also compounded of three cubes, being complete, full, and compacted in equality.

For the number three constantly exhibits, as belonging to itself, the first equality of all, having a beginning, and a middle, and an end, all of which are equal to one another ; and eight is the first cube, because it again has declared its first equality with the rest.

But the number twenty-four has likewise a great number of other virtues, since it is the substance of the number three hundred, as has been already pointed out ; this then is its first virtue ; and it has another, since it is compounded of twelve quadrangular figures, joined to one another by a continuous unity ; and besides of two long figures, and twelve double figures, being forsooth compounded of twos separately increased by two and two.

Therefore the angular numbers which make up together the twelve quadrangular figures are these ; one, three, five, seven, nine, eleven, thirteen, fifteen, seventeen, nineteen, twenty-one, and twenty-three ; but the quadrangular figure combines the following numbers, one, four, nine, sixteen, twenty-five, thirty-six, forty-nine, sixty-four, eighty-one, a hundred, a hundred and twenty-one, and a hundred and twenty-four.

He is referring to the Greek alphabet, which consists of twentyfour letters.

But those angular numbers which compose the other long figures are these ; one, four, six, eight, ten, twelve, fourteen, sixteen, eighteen, twenty, twenty-two, twenty-four, being twelve in all ; and after these come the compound numbers, two, six, twelve, twenty, thirty, forty-two, fifty-six, seventy-two, ninety, a hundred and ten, a hundred and thirty-two, and a hundred and fifty-six; being also twelve. And if you put together the twelve quadrangular figures, you will find a hundred and forty-four, and if you add the other twelve long figures, you will find a hundred and fifty-six ; and from the combination of the two you will get the number three hundred, and the concord of full, and complete, and perfect nature rising up to the equal and infinite harmony ; for a complete and perfect nature is the maker of equality, according to the nature of a triangle ; but the equal and the infinite are the factors of inequality, according to the composition of the other long figure.

But the universe consists of a combination of equality and inequality, on which account the Creator himself, even amid the destruction of all earthly things, placed a sort of fixed pattern of stability in the ark.

This then is enough to say about the number three hundred. We must now proceed to speak of the fifty cubits, on the following principle ; for in the first place it is composed of the right angle of the quadrangular figures ; for a right angle is compounded of three, four, and five ; and the square of these is nine, sixteen, and twenty-five, the sum total of which when added together is fifty ; in the second place, the perfect number fifty is composed of these four triangles linked together, one, three, six, ten ; and again of these four equal quadrangles also united together, one, four, nine, sixteen ; therefore these triangles when collected together make twenty ; and the quadrangles make thirty; and twenty and thirty added together make fifty.

But if the triangle and the quadrangle are added together, they make a heptangular figure : so that it is contained by its virtue in the number of fifty, that divine and holy number ; to which the prophet had regard when he proclaimed the jubilee festival ; and the whole of the jubilee year is free and a deliverer.

The third theorem is three triangles beginning with the unit, connected together in a continuous series, and three

cubes beginning also with the unit, and connected together in a similar manner, which together make fifty ; the examples of the first are one, four, and nine, which make fourteen ; the examples of the second are, one, eight, and twenty-seven, which together make thirty-six ; and the sum total of the two when added together is fifty.

Again, thirty is in an especial manner a natural number, for as in the series of units the number three is, so is the number thirty in the series of decimals ; and that makes up the cycle of the moon, being the collection of separate months in full delineation ; secondly, it is composed of four numbers, which are united in the continual series of these quadrangular figures, one, four, nine, and sixteen, which together make up thirty ; on which account it was not without some foundation and sufficient reason that Heraclitus called that number "generation," when he said : a man in thirty years from the time of his birth can become a grandfather, inasmuch as he arrives at the age of puberty in his fourteenth year, at which age he is capable of becoming a father ; and at the end of the year his offspring arrives at the birth, and again in fifteen years more begets another offspring like himself; and out of these names of grandfathers, fathers, and sons, as also out of the names of grandmothers, mothers, and daughters, a generation complete in its offspring is produced.

What is the meaning of a door in the side : for he says, " Thoushalt make a door in the side ? "

6. That door in the side very plainly betokens a human building, which he has becomingly indicated by calling it, " in the side," by which door all the excrements of dung are cast out. In truth, as Socrates says, whether because he learnt it from Moses or because he was influenced by the facts themselves, the Creator, having due regard to the decency of our body, has placed the exit and passage of the different ducts of the body back out of the reach of the sense, in order that while getting rid of the fetid portions of bile, we might not be disgusted by beholding the full appearance of our excrements. Therefore he has surrounded that passage by the back and posteriors, which project out like hills, as also the buttocks are made soft for other objects.

Why has he said that the lower part of the ark was to be made with two and with three stories ?

7. He has here admirably indicated the receptacles of food, calling them the inner parts of the house ; since food is corruptible, and what is corruptible belongs to the inward part, because it is borne downwards, since some small portions of meat and drink which we take are borne upwards, but the greater part is secreted and cast out into dung ; and the intestines have been made in two and in three stories, because of the providence of the Creator in order to supply abundant support to his creatures ; for if he had made the receptacles of food and its passage having a direct communication between the bowels and the buttocks, some awkward circumstances must have taken place ; in the first place there would have been a frequent deficiency, and want and hunger, and sudden evacuations also arising from divers unseasonable events ; in the second place there would have been an immense hunger, for when the receptacles are emptied, it is inevitable that hunger and thirst must immediately supervene, like absolute mistresses in difficulty from pregnancy, and then it follows also that the pleasant appetite for food must be perverted into greediness and into an unphilosophical state ; for nothing is so very inconvenient as for the belly to be empty.

And in the third place, there will be death waiting at the door ; since those persons must speedily be overtaken by death who the very moment that they have done eating begin again to be hungry, and the moment that they have drunk are again thirsty, and who before they are thoroughly filled are again evacuated and oppressed by hunger ; but owing to the long coils and windings of the bowels wTe are delivered from all feelings of hunger, from all greediness, and from being prematurely overtaken by death ; for while the food which has been taken remains within us, not for such a time only as the distance to be passed requires, but for so long as was necessary for us, a change in it is effected ; since by the pressure to which it is subjected, the strength of the food is extracted in the first instance in the belly ; then it is warmed in the liver, and drawn out ; after that whatever predominant flavour there was is emitted upwards to the separate parts, in the case of

348 PHILO JUCSEUS.

boys in order to contribute to their growth, and in the case of full-grown men to add to their strength ; and then nature, collecting the remaining portions into dung and excrement, casts them out.

Therefore a great deal of time is necessarily required for the arrangement of so many and such important affairs, nature effecting its operations without difficulty by perseverance.

Moreover the ark itself appears to me to be very fitly compared to the human body ; for as nature is exceedingly prolific of living creatures, for that very reason it has prepared an opposite receptacle similar to the earth for the creatures corrupted and destroyed by the flood ; for whatever was alive and supported on the earth, the ark now bore within itself in a more general manner, and on that account God ordained it, being borne upon the waters as it was, to be as it were like the earth, a mother and a nurse, and to exhibit the fathers of the subsequent race as if pregnant with it, together with the sun and moon, and the remaining multitude of the stars, and all the host of heaven ; because men beholding by means of that which was made by art, a comparison and analogy to the human body, might in that manner be more manifestly taught, for this was the cause of the various disputes among mankind ; since there is nothing which has so much contributed to keep man in a servile condition as the essential humours of the body, and the defects which arise in consequence of them, and most especially the vicious pleasures and desires.

Why does he say that the deluge will be to the corrupting of all flesh in which there is the breath of life beneath the heaven?

8. One may almost say that what he had previously spoken in riddles he has now made plain ; for there was no other cause for the corruption of mankind, except that, being slaves to pleasure and to desire, they did everything, and were anxious about everything for that reason only ; moreover they passed a life of extreme misery.

But he added also, in a very natural manner, the place where the breath of life is, using the expression, " under heaven," because forsooth there are living beings also in heaven ; for a happy body has not been made out of a heavenly substance, as if in truth it had received some peculiar and admi-

rable condition, superior to that of other living creatures, but heaven appears to have been made especially worthy of and for the sake of these admirable and divine living beings, all of which are intellectual spirits ; so that they give a share and participation in themselves and in the essence of vitality even to the creatures which exist upon the earth, and give life to all those which are capable of receiving it.

Why does he say, all things which existed upon the earth shall be consumed ; for what sin can the beasts commit ?

9. In the first place, as, when a sovereign is slain in battle the military valour of the kingdom is also crushed, so also he now has thought it reasonable that when the whole human race, bearing analogy to a sovereign, is destroyed, he should also destroy simultaneously with it the species of beasts likewise, on which account also in pestilences the beasts die first, and especially those which are bred up with and associate with men, such as dogs and similar animals, and afterwards the men die too.

In the second place, as, when the head is cut off, no one blames nature if the other portions of the body also, numerous and important as they are, are destroyed along with it, so too now no one can find fault with anything, since man is as it were the head and chief of all animals, and when he is destroyed it is not at all strange if all the rest of the beasts are destroyed also along with him.

In the third place, animals were originally made, not for their own sakes, as has been said by the philosophers, but in order to do service to mankind, and for their use and glory ; therefore it is very reasonable that when those beings are destroyed for the sake of whom they had their existence, they also should be deprived of life, and this is the reason of this assertion in its literal sense ; but with respect to its hidden meaning we may say, when the soul is exposed to a deluge from the overflow of vices, and is in a manner stifled by them, those portions also which are on the earth, the earthly parts I mean of the body, must of necessity likewise perish along with it ; for life passed in wickedness is death ; the eyes though they see perish, inasmuch as they see wrongly ; the ears also though they hear perish, inasmuch as they hear wrongly ; and

the whole body of the senses perishes, inasmuch as they are all exercised wrongly.

What is the meaning of the expression, I will set up my treaty with you ?

10. In the first place, he here warns us that no man is the inheritor of the divine substance, except him who is endowed with virtue ; since the inheritance of men is possessed when they themselves are no longer in existence, but when they are dead ; but as God is everlasting he grants a participation in his inheritance to wise men, rejoicing at their entering into possession of it ; for he who has entered into possession of everything is in want of nothing, but they who are in distress from a want of all things are in the possession of no portion of truth.

And on this account God, showing himself favourable to the virtuous, benefits them, bestowing on them those things of which they have need.

In the second place, he bestows on the wise man a certain and more ample inheritance ; for he does not say, I will set up my treaty for you, but with you ; that is to say, you are yourself a just and true treaty, which I will set up for the race endued with reason, who have need of virtue, for a possession and a glory to them.

Why does he say : " Enter thou and all thy house into the ark, because I have seen that thou art a just man before me in that generation ? " f

11. In the first place, certain faith receives approbation, inasmuch as for the sake of one man who is just and worthy many men are saved by reason of their relationship to him ; as is the case too with sailors and armies, when the one have a good captain and the others an excellent and skilful general.

In the second place, he extols the just man with praise, who thus acquires virtues, not for himself alone, but also for his whole family, which in this way deserves safety. And it is with peculiar propriety that this expression is added, namely, " I have seen that thou art a just man before me ; " for men approve of the life of any one upon one principle, and God on

quite a different one ; for they judge by what is visible, but he derives his tests from the invisible designs of the soul.

Moreover, that is a very remarkable expression which is added as an insertion, namely, the one which says, " I have seen that thou art a just man in this generation;" that he might not appear to condemn those who had gone before, nor cut off the future hope of coming generations. This is the sense of the passage taken according to the letter.

But if we look at its inward meaning, when God will save the intellect of the soul, which is the principal part of the man, that is to say, the head of the family, then also he will save the whole family along with him ; I mean all the parts, and all those who bear an analogy to the parts, and to the word which is uttered, and to the circumstances of the body ; for what the intellect is in the soul, that also is the soul in the body. All the parts of the soul are in good condition, owing to tbe result of counsels, and all its family derives the benefit along with it. But when the whole soul is in a good condition, then also its habitation is again found to be benefited by its advantages, that is to say, the body is benefited by purity of morals and sobriety, those overstrained desires which are the causes of diseases being cut off.

Why does he order seven of each of the clean animals, male and female, to be taken into the ark, but of the unclean animals only two, male and female, in order to preserve seed upon all the earth?

12. By divine ordinance he has asserted the number seven to be clean, and the number two to be unclean ; since the number seven is clean by nature, inasmuch as that is a virgin number, free from all admixture, and without any parent. Nor does it generate any tbing, nor is it generated, as each of those numbers which are below the number ten, on account of their similitude to the unit, because it is uncreated and unbegotten, and nothing is generated by it, although it is itself the cause of creation and generation ; because it rouses the virtues of all things which are well-arranged, for the generation of created beings.

But the number two is not clean. In tbe first place, because it is empty, not solid ; and because it is not full,

therefore neither is it clean ; because it is likewise the beginning of infinite immensity by reason of its materiality. It also labours under inequality on account of the other long numbers; for all the other numbers after two which are increased in a twofold proportion are long numbers. But that which is unequal is not clean, as neither is that which is material ; but that which proceeds from such is fallible and inelegant, being destitute of the purity of reason to conduct it to completeness and perfection ; and it conducts it to such by its own intrinsic power, and by songs of harmony and equality.

This is enough to say on the physical part of the subject; it remains for us to speak of its moral bearings.

The irrational parts of our soul which are destitute of intellect are divided into seven ; that is to say, into the five senses, and the vocal organ, and the seminal organ. Now these in a man endued with virtue are all clean, and by nature feminine, inasmuch as they belong to the irrational species ; but to a man who has come into full possession of his inheritance they are masculine ; for men endued with virtue are also the parents of the virtue of counsel to themselves, the best part of them not permitting them to come to the external senses in a precipitate and unbridled manner, but repressing them and leading them back to right reason.

But in the wicked man there exists a twofold wickedness ; since the unjust man is full of doubts and perplexities, as a hesitating person, mingling things which ought not to be mixed, and connecting them with one another, confounding those things wbich may very easily be kept separate. Such are those passions which imbue the soul with some particular colour, like a man spotted and leprous in body, the originally sound counsel being infected and contaminated by that which is destructive and fatal. But the principle of the entrance and of the custody of animals is added in a natural manner; for he says, "for the sake of nourishing seed." If we take the expression according to the letter, inasmuch as, although particular individuals may be destroyed, still at least a race is preserved to be the seed of future generations ; forsooth that the intention of God, conceived at the formation of the world, might remain for ever and ever unextinguishable, the different races of creatures being preserved.

But if we regard the inward meaning of the words, it is

necessary that in the irrational parts of the soul, likewise, there should be motions which are clean, as certain seminal principles, although the animals 'themselves are not clean; since the nature of mankind is capable of admitting contrarieties, for instauce, virtue and wickedness ; each of which he delineated at the creation of the world, by the tree bearing the name of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Forsooth our intellect, in which there is both knowledge and intelligence, comprehends both good and evil ; but good is akin to the number seven, and evil is the brother of duality.

Moreover, the law of wisdom, which abounds in beauty, says expressly and carefully, that seed is to be nourished, not in one place only, but in all the earth, both naturally, in the first instance, and also morally, in its peculiar sense ; because it is very natural, and suitable to the character of God, to cause that which in all parts and divisions of the world is said again to be the seed of living beings, to fill places which have been evacuated a second time with similar creatures, by a repeated generation ; and not altogether to desert our body, inasmuch as it is an earthly substance, as if it were a thing deserted by and void of all principle of life.

Since, if we practise the drinking of wines and the eating of meats, and indulge in the ardent desire of the female, and in short practise in all things a delicate and luxurious life, we are then only the bearers of a corpse in the body ; but if God, taking compassion on us, turns away the overflow of vices and renders the soul dry, he will then begin to make the body living, and to animate it with a purer soul, the governing principle of which is wisdom.

Why, after the entrance of Noah into the ark, did seven days elapse, after which the deluge came?"

13. The kind Saviour of the world allows a space for the repentance of sinners, in order that when they see the ark placed in front of them as a sort of type, made with respect to the then present time, and when they see all the different kinds of living creatures shut up in it which the earth used to bear on its surface, according to its parts adapted to the different species, they might believe the predictions of tli9 deluge which had been made to them, so that, fearing total

354 PHILO JUCETJS.

destruction above all things, they might be speedily converted, destroying and eradicating all their iniquity and wickedness.

In the second place, this' language is a most manifest representation of the exceeding great abundance of the kind mercy of the beneficent Saviour, by destroying the wickedness of many years, which from the time of their birth to old age has extended itself over their conduct in those persons who practise penitence for a few days, for the divine nature forgets all evil and is a lover of virtue. When therefore it beholds faithful virtue in the soul, it gives it honour in a wonderful degree, in order, in the first place, to take away all kinds of evil which impend over it from its sins.

In the third place, the number of seven days after the entrance of Noah into the ark, during which the command of God kept off the flood, is a recollection of the creation of the world, the birthday festival of which is kept on the seventh day, showing manifestly the authority of the Father; just as if he were to say, " I am the Creator of the world, commanding things to exist which have no existence ; and at the same time I am he who am now about to destroy the world with a great flood. But the original cause of the creation of the world was the goodness which is in me, and my kindness ; and the cause of its impending destruction is the ingratitude and impiety of those persons who have been loaded by benefits by me."

Therefore he causes an interval of seven days, in order that the unbelieving may remember, and that those who have abandoned their faith in the Parent of the world may in a suppliant spirit return to the Creator of all things, and so may entreat him again that his works may be everlasting ; and that they may offer their entreaty, not with mouth and tongue, but rather with the heart of amendment and penitence.

Why did the rain of the deluge last forty days and an equal number of nights ?

14. In the first place, the word day is used in a double sense. The one meaning that time which is from morning to evening, that is to say, from the first rising of the sun in the east to his sinking in the west. Therefore they who make definitions, say, " That is day, as long as the sun shines on the earth."

In another sense, the word day is used of the day and night together. And in this sense we say that a month consists of thirty days, combining together and computing the period of night in the same calculation.

These premises having been first laid down thus, I say that the word now spoken of has not been incorrectly employed, inasmuch as it implies forty days and forty nights ; but is also so used in order to suggest a double number determined for the generation of mankind, namely, forty and eighty, as many men skilled in medicine, and indeed also in physical science, have suggested ; but it is especially described in the sacred law, which was to them also the first principle of natural science.

Since therefore destruction was on the point of overwhelming all men and women every where on account of the excessive combination of iniquities and quarrels, the Judge of all considered it becoming to allot an equal time to their destruction to that which he had consumed in the original creation of nature and to the work of giving life to the world ; for the principle of procreation is the perseverance of seed in the different parts ; but it was necessary to honour the male creature with pure light, which knows not the shade ; but the woman had a mixture in her body of night and darkness.

Therefore, in the creation of the whole world, the excess of the male or the unequal number, being composed of unity, becomes the parent of square numbers ; but the woman who is an unequal number, being compounded of duality, becomes the parent of other long numbers. Moreover, the square is splendour and light combining together by the equality of the sides ; but the other numbers being long necessarily exhibit night and darkness by reason of their inequality, since that which is in excess throws a shade over that which lies beneath the excess.

In the second place, the number forty is the produce of many virtues, as has been suggested in another place. It is also often used for the judgment of legislation, both with reference to those persons who have done any thing rightly deserving of praise and honour, and also with reference to those who on account of their sins meet with reproaches and punishments; so that it is superfluous to adduce proofs to demonstrate what is evident.

What is the meaning of the expression, " I will destroy

every living substance that I have made from off the face of the earth?"

15. Do you not all shrink back in astonishment when you hear these words, by reason of the beauty of the sentence ? for he has not said, " destroy from the earth," but " from the face of the earth," that is to say from its surface ; in order, that is, that in the lowest depth of the earth the vital efficacy of all seeds might be preserved unhurt, and free from all injury which could possibly bring damage to it ; since the Creator was not forgetful of his original design, but destroys tbose only who come in his way, and who move only on the surface of the earth, but leaves the roots in the depth, in order to produce the generation of other causes.

Moreover, that expression, " I will destroy," was also written by divine inspiration ; for it happens that if we remove the letters which require to be removed, the whole table for the reception of letters remains the same. By which he proves that he will destroy the fickle generation on account of their impiety, but the conversation and essence of the human race he will preserve for ever and ever to be the seed of future generations. And what follows agrees with this, since to the expression, "I will destroy," this other is also added, all natural existence, every thing which exists, or rises upon the earth ; but existence is the destruction of the opposite characteristics ; and that which is dissolved loses quality, but retains body and materiality. This is the letter of what is said.

But in the inward meaning, the flood is symbolically representative of spiritual dissolution. When therefore by the grace of the Father we desire to throw away and to wash off all sensible and corporeal qualities by which the intellect was infected as by swelling sores, then the muddy slime is got rid of as by a deluge, sweet waters and wholesome fountains supervening.

Why does he say : " Noah did every thing which the Lord commanded (or ordered) him? "I

16. A noble panegyric for the just man. In tne first place, because with an ingenuous mind and a purpose full of affection

Genesis vii. 4. f Genesis vii. 5.

towards God he performed, not a part of what he had been commanded, but the whole of God's commands. But the second is the more true expression, because he does not choose so much to command as to order him ; for masters command their slaves, but friends order friends, and especially elder friends order younger ones. Therefore it is a marvellous gift to be found even in the rank of servants, and in the list of ministers of God ; and it is a superabundant excess of kindness for any one to be a beloved friend to the most glorious Uncreated Essence.

Moreover, the sacred writer has here carefully employed both names, the Lord God, as declaratory of his superior powers of destroying and benefiting, using the word Lord first, and placing the name God, giving the idea of beneficence, second ; since it was a time of judgment let the name which is the indication of his destroying power come first. But still, as he is a kind and merciful king, he leaves as relics the seminal elements by which the vacant places may be replenished, for which reason, at the first beginning of the account of the creation, the expression, " Let there be," was not an exterminating act of power, but a beneficent one.

Therefore, at the creation, he changed the appellations and use of names ; but as the name God is an indication of his beneficent power, the sacred writer has more frequently employed that in his account of the creation of the universe, but after everything was perfected then he called him Lord, in reference to the creation itself, for this name betokens royal power and the ability to destroy ; since, where the act of generation is God is used first in order, but when punishment is spoken of the name Lord is placed before the name God.

Why did the deluge take place in the six hundredth year of the life of Noah, and in the seventh month, and on the twentyseventh day of the month ?

17. Perhaps it happened that the just man was born at the beginning of the month, at the first beginning of the commencement of that very year which they are accustomed to call the sacred year, out of honour, otherwise the sacred historian would not have been so carefully accurate in fixing

the day and month when the deluge began to the seventh month and the twenty-seventh day of the month.

But, perhaps, by this minuteness he intended manifestly to indicate the precise time of the vernal equinox, for that always occurs on the twenty-seventh day of the seventh month.

But why was it that the deluge fell on the day of the vernal equinox ? Because about that time the birth and increase of everything take place, whether living creatures or plants ; therefore the vengeance and punishment inflicted brings with it the more terrible and dreadful threats, as happening at the period of plenty and fertility of the sheaves of corn, and indeed, in the very midst of that productiveness, and bringing the evil of utter destruction as a reproof of the impiety of those who are exposed to the punishment.

For behold, says he, all nature contains its own productions within itself in the greatest abundance, namely, wheat and barley, and everything else which is produced from seed, brought on to complete generation, as, also, it begins to generate the fruits of trees ; but you, like mortals, corrupt its mercies, perverting the divine gifts, and purposes, and mysteries.

But if the deluge had taken place at the autumnal equinor, when there was nothing growing on the earth, but when all the crops were collected into their proper storehouses, it would not have, in any degree, been looked upon as a punishment, but rather as a benefit, as the water would have cleansed the plains and the mountains. But as the first man who was produced out of the earth was also created at the same season of the year, he whom the divine writer calls Adam, because in fact it was on every account proper that the grandfather, or original parent, or father of the human race, or by whatever name we may choose to designate that original founder of our kind, should be created at the season of the vernal equinox, when all earthly productions were full of their fruit ; but the vernal equinox takes place in the seventh month, which is also called the first in other passages, with reference to a different idea.

Since, therefore, the first beginning of the generation of our race, after the destruction caused by the deluge, commenced with Noah, men being again sown and procreated, therefore lie also is recognised as resembling the first man born of the

earth, as far as such resemblance or recognition is possible. And the six hundredth year has for its origin the number six ; and the world was created under the number six, therefore, by this same number does he reprove the wicked, putting them to shame because he would, unquestionably, never, after he had created the universe by means of the number six, have destroyed all the men who lived on the earth under the form of six, if it had not been for the preposterous excess of their iniquities. For the third power of six and the minor power is the number six hundred, and the mean between both is sixty, since the number ten more evidently represents the likeness of unity, and the number a hundred represents the minor power.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And the fountains of the deep were broken, and the springs of heaven were opened ?"

18. The literal meaning is plain enough, for it suggests the two extremities of the universe, the heaven and the earth, to have met together for the destruction of mortals deserving of condemnation, the waters running forth to meet one another from all quarters, for part of them bubbled up from out of the earth, and part descended downwards from heaven ; and in truth, that expression is very explicit, " The fountains were broken up," for when a rupture is effected then the thing confined rushes forth without any hindrance.

But with reference to the interior meaning of the expression we may as well say this : the heaven is symbolically the human intellect, and the earth is the sense and body, therefore there is great distress and calamity when neither remains, but when each threatens a secret attack. But what is the exact meaning of my words ?

It often happens that acuteness of intellect exhibits cunning and wickedness, and bears itself with bitterness in every respect when the lusts of the body are restrained and bridled ; but the contrary fact often prevails, and the lusts rejoice in their opportunities and proceed onward, gaining strength from luxury and abundance of means ; therefore, the gate of these lusts is the outward sense combined with the body ; but when the intellect, neglecting outward circumstances, is consistent

with itself, then the senses lie harmless, as if completely abandoned ; but when both are united, the intellect in exerting all cunning and wickedness, and tbe body irrigated with all the senses and gorged with every kind of vice to satiety, then we are exposed to a deluge ; and this is in fact a great deluge, when the streams of the intellect are opened by iniquity, and folly, and greedy desire, and injustice, and arrogance, and impiety, and when the fountains of the body are opened by lust, and desire, and intemperance, and obscenity, and gluttony, and lasciviousness, with relations and sisters, and all irremediable diseases.

What is the meaning of the expression, "And the Lord shut him in, closing the doors of the ark ? "

19. Since we have said that the structure of the human body is symbolically indicated by the ark, we must take notice, also, that on the outside this body is enclosed by a hard and dense skin, to be a covering to all its parts ; for nature has made this as a sort of coat, to prevent either cold or heat from being able to do man injury.

The literal meaning of the expression is plain enough, for the door of the ark is carefully shut by divine virtue for the sake of security, lest the water should enter in at any part, as it was to be tossed about by the waves for an entire year.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And the water was greatlj increased, and bore up the ark which floated upon the water ? "f

20. The literal meaning is plain enough, but it contains an allegorical reference to our bodies, which ought to be borne up as if on the water, and by fluctuating with our necessities to subdue hunger and thirst, cold and heat, by which it is agitated, disturbed, and kept in motion.

Why did the water overflow fifteen cubits above all the highest mountains ?J

21. With respect to the literal statement we must remark that the excess was not merely one of fifteen cubits above all high mountains but above those which were a great deal more

lofty and high than some others ; therefore it was a great deal more than that height above the lower ones.

But we must interpret this statement allegorically ; for the loftier mountains shadow forth the senses in our body, because it has been permitted to them to occupy the abode of stability in the lofty region of our head. And there are five numbers of these, each to be considered separately, so that they amount in all to fifteen.

As, there is the faculty of sight, the thing which is visible, the act of seeing.

The faculty of hearing, the thing which is audible, and the act of hearing.

The faculty of smelling, the thing which can be smelled, and the act of smelling.

The faculty of taste, the thing which can be tasted, and the act of tasting.

The faculty of touch, the thing which can be touched, and the act of touching.

These are the fifteen cubits in excess ; for they also are overwhelmed by the overflow, being destroyed by the unseasonable influx of infinite vices and evils.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And all flesh capable of motion perished?"

22. It is with especial propriety, and strictly in accordance with natural truth, that the sacred historian has here pronounced all flesh capable of motion devoted to destruction ; for flesh excites pleasures, and is excited by pleasures ; and such affections are the causes of the destruction of souls, as on the other hand sobriety and patience are the causes of safety.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And everything which was on the dry land died ? "f

23. The literal meaning is notorious, because in that great deluge everything which was upon the earth was destroyed and perished ; but with respect to the secret meaning, as, since the material of timber, when it is parched and dry, is readily consumed by fire, so, likewise, when the soul is not mingled with wisdom, and justice, and piety, and the other

enduring virtues, which alone are able to impart real joy to the thoughts, then it, being parched up and dried like a plant which is deprived of any power of budding or producing seed, or like a withered trunk, dies, being handed over to the mercy of the overwhelming overflow of the body.

What is the meaning of the words, " It destroyed every living substance which was on the face of the earth?"

24. The literal meaning of these words only announces a plain statement of a fact, but it may be turned into an allegory in this manner. It is not without reason that the sacred historian has used the words " a living substance," for that is characteristic of ambition and pride, which lead men to despise both divine and human laws ; but ambition and arrogance do rather appear on the face of our earthly and corporeal nature with an elated countenance and contracted brows.

Since there are some persons who come nearer to one with their feet, but with their chests, and necks, and heads lean back, and are actually borne backwards and bend away like a balance, so that with one half of their body, in consequence of the position of their feet, they project forward, but backward with the upper portion of their chests, drawing themselves back like those persons whose muscles and nerves are in pain, by which they are prevented from stooping in a natural manner. But men of this kind it was determined to put an end to, as one may see from the records of the Lord and the divine history of the scriptures.

What is the meaning of the words, " Noah remained alone, and they who were with him in the ark ?" f

25. The literal meaning of this is evident ; but with respect to its concealed sense we may advance an opinion, that the intellect which is desirous of studying justice and wisdom does, like a tree, discard all noxious shoots which bud forth about it, and rejects all extravagant humours of superfluous vigour, I mean immoderate excess of the affections, and wickedness, and all the effects of such.

Therefore he is here said to have been left alone with those of his own kindred, and his kindred are properly all those designs and thoughts of each individual, which are regulated

in accordance with virtue, on which account the statement is added " And he remained alone, and they who were with him," in order to reveal a more genuine joy; but he remained in the ark, that is to say, in the body, because it was purified from every vice and spiritual disease, as the intellect was not yet put in such a condition as to be wholly incorporeal.

And on this account also, we must render thanks to the merciful Father, because he received his consort and colleague no longer as one endowed with superior power, but to be subordinate to his own power, on which account also the body is not submerged in the deluge, but rising above the flood is not at all destroyed by the eddies of the cataracts, which a crapulous, libidinous, vanity-loving will, overflowing all thing3, raises to an eminence.

Why is it that the sacred writer says, " And God was mindful of Noah, and of the beasts, and of the cattle," but does not add that he remembered his wife and children ?

26. As the husband agrees with and is equal to his wife, and as the father is equal to his sons, there is no need of mentioning more names than one, but one, the first, is sufficient; therefore, by naming Noah he, in effect, names all those who were with him of his family ; for when husband, and wife, and children, and relations are all agitated by discord, then it is no longer possible for such to be called one family, but instead of being one they are many; but when harmony exists then one family is exhibited by one superior of the house, and all are seen to depend upon that one, like the branches of a tree which shoot out from it, or the fruit upon a vine branch which does not fall off from it.

And in another part, also, the prophet has said, " Have a regard to Abraham your father, and to Sarah who brought you forth," where, because in fact it was one family, he displays the agreement by mentioning the woman.

Why is it that the sacred writer made mention first of the beasts and afterwards of the cattle, saying that God remembered Noah, and the beasts, and the cattle ? t

27. Tn the first place, that poetical rule has not been expressed in vain, that he led the bad into the middle ;

Genesis viii. 1. f Ibid.

therefore he places the heasts in the middle, hetween the domestic animals, that is to say the men and the cattle, in order that they might be tamed and civilized by having an intimate association with both.

In the second place, he thought it scarcely reasonable to bestow a provident benefit on the beasts by themselves, because he was about immediately to add a statement of the beginning of the diminution of the deluge. This is the explanation of the statement taken literally.

But with respect to the inner meaning, that just intellect, dwelling in the body as if in the ark, possesses both beasts and living animals, not those particular ones which bite and hurt, but, that I may use such an expression, those general kinds which contain in themselves the principles of seed aud origination ; since without these the soul cannot be manifest in the body. Moreover, the soul of the foolish man employs all poisonous and deadly animals, but that of the wise man those only which have changed the nature of wild beasts into that of domestic creatures.

What is the meaning of the expression, " He brought a breath over the earth, and the water ceased ? "

S8. Some people say that what is here meant by " a breath " is the wind, at which the deluge ceased. But I am not aware that water is diminished by wind, but only that it is disturbed and agitated into waves, for if it were otherwise the vast extent of the sea would have been wholly dried up long ago.

Therefore it appears to me that the sacred writer here means the breath of the Deity, by which the whole universe obtains security at the same time with the calamities of the world, and with those things which exist in the air, and in every mixture of plants and animals. Since the deluge of that time was no trifling infliction of water, but an immense aud boundless overflow, extending almost beyond the pillars of Hercules and the great Mediterranean Sea, since the whole earth and all the spaces of the mountains were covered with water ; and it is scarcely likely that such a vast space could have been cleared by a wind, but rather, as I have said, it must have been done by some invisible and divine virtue.

QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS. 3G5

What is the meaning of the expression, " The fountains of the deep were closed, and the cataracts of heaven ? "

29. In the first place, it is agreed upon by all that in the first period of forty days the waters of punishment fell uninterruptedly, the lowest fountains of the earth being burst asunder ; and from above, the cataracts of heaven being opened, and pouring down until all places, both level and mountainous, were covered with the inundation ; and for another period of a hundred and fifty entire days the waters did not cease to fall, nor did the streams cease to flow, nor the springs to burst up, though still in milder quantities, not so as to increase the existing flood, but only so as to secuie the duration of the existence of the deluge, which was also assisted from on high ; and this is what is indicated in the meantime by the statement that after a hundred and fifty days the fountains and the cataracts were closed up ; therefore, while as yet they were not closed up it is plain that they were in action.

In the second place, it was necessary that that which afforded the excessive supply of waters for the deluge, namely, the double reservoir of water, the one from the fountains of the earth, and the other from the pourings forth of heaven, should be both closed, for the more the stores from which any material is supplied fail, the more it is consumed by itself, especially when divine virtue has given the command.

This is the literal meaning of the expression. But with respect to the inner sense of the passage, since the delude of the mind arises from two things, for it arises partly from counsel, as if from heaven, and in another degree also from the body and from sense, as if from earth, the vices being reciprocally introduced by the passions and the passions by the vices, it was inevitably necessary that the word of the divine physician entering in as a salutary visitation for the purpose of healing the disease, should prevent both kinds of overflow for the future ; for it is the first principle of the medical art to drive away the cause of the infirmity and to leave no longer any materials for disease ; and the scripture teaches this, also, in the case of the leper, for when the leprosy is checked and is prevented from extending further,

• Genesis viiL 2.

it then fixes the station and abode of the leprous man in the same place by a law, because the character of being stationary implies cleanliness, for that which is moved contrary to nature is unclean.

What is the meaning of the statement that after a hundred and fifty days the water began to abate ?

30. We must here inquire whether those hundred and fifty days, during which the water was abating, are to be distinguished from the four months, or whether they have a reference to the days previously mentioned, during which the deluge went on unceasingly, as still increasing.

Why does he say, " The ark settled in the seventh month on the seven and twentieth day of the month ? "f

31. It is reasonable here to consider how the beginning of the deluge commences in the seventh month, on the twentyseventh day of the month, and bow the diminution, when the ark rested on the top of the mountains, again took place in the seventh month and on the twenty-seventh day of the month ; therefore we must say, that there is here an homonymy of months and days, for the beginning of the flood took place in the seventh month, beginning at the birthday of the just man, near the time of the vernal equinox, and its diminution took place in the seventh month, beginning from the highest point of the flood at the autumnal equinox, since the two equinoxes are separated from one another by seven months, having an interval of five months between them.

For the seventh month of the equinox is also by its virtue the first month, because the creation of the world took place in it, on account of the abundance of all things at that season. And, in like manner, the seventh month of the autumnal equinox, which> according to time, is the first in dignity, having its principle of that number seven derived from the air; therefore, the deluge took place in the seventh month, not according to time but according to nature, haviug for its principle and commencement the spring season.

Why does he say, " In the tenth month, on the first day of the month, the heads of the mountains appeared ? "t

32. As in numerals the number ten is the extreme bound of the units, being a definitive and perfect number, so too it is the cycle and end of the units, and also the beginning and cycle of the decades, and of infinity of numbers ; thus the Creator, on the cessation of the deluge, condescended that the tops of the mountains should appear in the number of the decade, being a definitive and perfect number.

Why was it after forty days that the just man opened the window of the ark ?

33. We must observe carefully that the divine historian uses the same number in speaking of the influx of the deluge and in mentioning the cessation and complete removal of the evil ; forsooth on the twenty-seventh day of the seventh month in the six hundredth year of the life of Noah, that is to say in the six hundredth year after his nativity, the deluge began at the spring season ; but on the twenty -seventh day of the seventh month, the ark rested on the top of the mountains at the vernal equinox.

But it is plain from these circumstances that the deluge became invisible in the six hundred and first year of Noah's life, again on the seventh month and the twenty-seventh clay of it, so that after the lapse of an entire year, it again settled and established the earth as it was at the moment of its destruction, in the spring season, budding forth and covered with verdure and full of all kinds of fruits.

But again in a similar manner the overflow of the deluge took place for forty days, the cataracts of heaven being opened and fountains bursting upwards from the lowest depths of the earth ; and again a hope of renewal took place at intervals of forty days after a sufficient cessation of the rains, when he opened the window ; and again the duration of the permanent deluge lasted for a period of a hundred and fifty days, as also its gradual diminution occupied a period of a hundred and fifty days ; so that we may well admire the equality of the arrangement, for the evil increased and ceased according to the same number, like the moon, which from its first rise proceeds in its increase according to an equal number, going onward to its perfect fulness of light, and then again with an equal number in its decrease, returning back to its original state, after

Genesis viiL 5.

368 PHILO JUDzEUS.

having been previously full ; and in like manner in the case of divine chastisements, the Creator preserves a regular order, banishing all irregularity from the divine borders.

What is the window of the ark, which the just man opens ?

34. The literal statement scarcely admits of any difficulty or doubt, inasmuch as it is plain ; but with reference to the inner meaning we have this to say : each separate part of the senses has imitated the windows of the body, since it is through them as through windows that the comprehension of sensible objects enters into the intellect, and again it is through them that the intellect stretches forth as if escaping ; but a portion of these windows, the senses, the more noble portion too, I say, is the sight ; inasmuch as that above all the rest is akin to the soul, and it is intimately acquainted with light, the., most beautiful of the essences, and it is the minister of sacred things ; moreover that is the one which first laid open the road to philosophy.

For beholding the regular motion of the sun, and of the moon, and the erratic course of the other planets, and the unerring circular motion of the whole heaven, and the order and harmony there existing beyond all calculation, as if it were the one real creator of the whole world, it by itself related to its one chief counsellor and director all that it saw : and then intellect, seeing those things with its acute eye, and by those things discerning superior demonstrative ideas, and the cause of all those things, immediately perceived that there was a God at the same moment that it arrived at the conception of generation and providence, because forsooth it was plain that this visible nature was not created by itself : for it was impossible that such a harmony, and order, and reason, and most consistent analogy, and that a concord of such a character and extent, and that such true and perfect felicity should exist by its own power : but it was necessaiy that there must be some Creator and parent of it acting like a governor and director, who generated these things, and then having generated them preserves them safe and sound.

Why did he send out a raven first ? f

35. If we look to the literal statement, the raven is said to * Genesis viii. 6. t Ibid.

be an animal particularly set apart for being sent on messages and employed in offices ; for to this very day many people watch its mode of flight and its chattering, judging that it gives some intimation of unknown facts ; but with respect to the hidden meaning, as a raven is a black, and arrogant, and speedy animal, it is a sign of wickedness, which brings night and darkness over the soul, and it is also swift to meet all the things of the world in its flight.

iVnd also that it is very bold, so as at times to cause the destruction of those who seek to catch it, since pride produces also rash impudence, the opposite of which is virtue, which is consistent with the brilliancy of light, and is by nature decorated with a modest bashfulness ; therefore it is quite natural that if there was any darkness remaining behind in the intellect, darkness which exists in accordance with folly, he should expel that and send it out beyond his borders.

Why did the raven after it had gone forth not return, when there was not yet any part of the earth dried ?

36. This passage admits of an allegorical interpretation since injustice is contrary to the light of justice ; so that in comparison of the admirable actions of the man endued with virtue, it thinks it more desirable to rejoice with its kinsman the deluge ; for injustice is a lover of confusion and corruption.

Why does he speak here in an incorrect manner, " Till the water was dried up from the earth ;" when it was not the water which was dried up from the earth, but the earth which was dried from the water ? f

37. He uses this expression in an allegorical sense, indicating by the fall of the waters the immensity of vices, by which when saturated and vigorous the soul is corrupted, but when they are dried up and withered, it is preserved ; for then they cannot inflict any mischief upon it, since they are become impotent and dead.

Why does he in the second place send forth the dove, and why does he send it forth from himself to see whether the water had ceased, when he uses no such expressions about the raven ? J

Genesis viii. 7. t Ibid. J Genesiu viii. 8.

In the first place, the dove is a clean animal, and in the second place it is tame, civilised, and one which associates with mankind, on which account also the honour has been allotted to it of being offered up upon the altar in sacrifices ; and on this account the sacred writer, sanctioning this honour and adding the weight of his assertion, has said, he sent it forth from himself, declaring by this expression that it dwelt with him ; and again, by the expression that it was to see whether the water was abated, he displays the common anxiety felt by both.

But those birds, the raven and the dove, are symbols of wickedness and virtue : for the one, whether it is wickedness or the raven, has no house, nor habitation, nor city, being an insolent unsociable bird ; but the other, namely virtue, has a regard to humanity, and to the public good : and so the man endowed with virtue sends that bird forth as his ambassador for desirable and salutary objects, wishing to receive from it desirable information ; and she, like an ambassador, brings us back genuine pleasure, so that what is hurtful may be guarded against, and what is useful may be diligently and carefully admitted.

Why did the dove, when it found no rest for its feet, return to Noah?

39. Is not the reason of this evident, and is it not a plain proof that wickedness and virtue are symbolically indicated by the raven and the dove ? For bebold the dove, which is the last sent out, finds no rest. How, then, could the raven, who departed previously, while the calamity of the deluge was still prevailing, find any place, and make a settlement ? For the raven was neither a swan nor an ibis, nor did he belong to the class of aquatic birds.

But the sacred writer here points out in an enigmatical manner, that wickedness, when it has gone forth out of doors, to the swelling whirlpools of the vices and passions which overflow and corrupt the soul and life, joyfully admits them, and dwells with and takes up its abode with them, as with its nearest friends and relations ; but virtue, turning away with loathing from even the first sight of them, at once springs back, and does not return, scarcely finding rest for its feet;

finding, in fact, no standing ground anywhere, and no place worthy of itself. For what other greater evil can there be than this, that virtue should not be able to find iu the soul any place ever so small for rest and for abiding in ?

What is the meaning of the statement, " Putting forth his hand, he received her, and brought her in to himself?"

40. The literal meaning is plain, but with respect to the hidden sense we must elicit the truth carefully. The wise man employs truth as an overseer of and ambassador in important affairs, which, when it perceives that those natures are worthy of it, abides among and dwells with them, correcting them, and making them better, since wisdom is a very common, and equal, and useful thing. But when, with reference to the opposite natures, it sees that in some points they are preposterously redundant and in others altogether deficient, it returns to its proper place ; and the man endowed with virtue admits it in word, putting forth his hand to take it, and in fact opening all his intellect for its reception, and unfolding it by the perfect number, full and equal, with all imaginable promptitude.

Nor even then, when he had sent her forth from himself to examine the natures of other things, had be separated it from himself, but had only acted like the sun, which seuds forth his beams to give light to all things, because it is not at all consistent with the character of his boundless light to be separated at all.

Why did he, after waiting yet seven other days, send forth the dove a second time ?f

41. This is an excellent example for life, since although it will behold natures obstinate at first, still the hope of changing them into better natures is scarcely allowed to drop ; and as a prudent physician does not hi a moment apply a perfect cure to a disease, or effect a complete restoration to health, but employs salutary medicines after he has given nature an opportunity of first opening the way to recovery, so too the man endowed with virtue behaves with respect to the employment of the word which is in accordance with the law of wisdom.

But the number seven is the sacred and dominical number, * Genesis viii. 9. f Qenesis viii. 10.

372 philo juixeus.

according to which the Father of the universe, when he made the world, is said to have looked upon his work. And the contemplation of the world, and of all the things contained in it, is nothing else but philosophy, and that excellent and select portion of it which wisdom contains, comprehending within itself also a work still more necessary to be seen.

What is the meaning of the expression, " The dove returned a second time to him about evening, having in her mouth a leaf and a thin branch of olive ?"

42. All these separate points are selected and approved signs — the returning, the returning about evening, the having an olive-leaf and a thin branch of that tree, and oil, and the having it in her mouth ; but yet every one of these signs can be examined with a certainty beyond certainty, for the return is distinct from its previous return, for that one bore with it an announcement of nature being wholly corrupted and rebellious, and being wholly destroyed by the deluge, that is to say, by great ignorance and insolence ; but this second return brings the news of the world beginning to repent, but to find repentance is not an easy task, but is a difficult and laborious business.

And it is on this account that the dove arrived in the evening, having passed the whole day from morning to evening in its visitations ; in word, indeed, examining places, but in fact investigating the different parts of nature itself by continual visitation, and seeing them all clearly from beginning to end, for the evening is the indication of the end.

The third sign, again, is its bringing a leaf; but a leaf is a small part of a tree, still it does not exist without a tree. And the beginning of displaying repentance is somewhat corresponding to this, since the beginning of correction has some slight indications about it, which we may call a leaf, by which it appears to receive guardianship, but can easily be shaken off ; so that the hope shall in that case not be great of attaining the desired improvement, which is typified by the leaf of no other tree but of the olive alone, and oil is the material of light. For wickedness, as I have said before, is profound darkness, but virtue is luminous" brilliancy, and repentance is the beginning of light. But you must not yet suppose that

the beginning of repentance is only visible in branches just germinating and beginning to look green, but that it exists too while they are still dry, and while the seminal principle is dry and quiescent.

And it is on this account that the fifth sign is shown, that, namely, of the dove when it comes bearing a slender branch.

And the sixth sign is that this slender branch was in its mouth, for the number six is the first perfect number, since virtue bears in its mouth, that is to say in its conversation, the seeds of wisdom and justice, or, in one word, of honesty of the soul ; and not only bears this, but gives some portion of participation in it even to the foolish, by drawing up water for their souls, and irrigating them with the desire of repentance for their sins.

Why is it said, " And Noah knew that the waters had ceased from off the earth?"

43. The literal statement is plain, since if the leaf had been taken up from off the water it would have been wet and soaked, but now he says that it was dry and slender, as if it had become dry by being on the earth which was dried. But with reference to its inward meaning, the wise man takes it as a symbol of repentance, and wishes to check the calamities of excessive obstinacy by taking the leaf, since it was not yet green, but slender, for the reason which has been already mentioned.

At the same time we may admire the Father on account of his exceeding kindness, for although corruption had prevailed over all the men who lived on the earth from the excess of their iniquities, still there remained some relics of antiquity and of that which was from the beginning, and a slight seed of previous virtues ; by which it is intimated nevertheless that the memory of all the good deeds that have been done from the beginning is not wholly destroyed. On which account a certain prophet, the kinsman and friend of Moses, uttered an oracle of this kind, " If the omnipotent Lord had not left us a seed, we should have been like blind and barren people," t able neither to know the truth nor to generate it. And the Chaldaeans in their native language call blindness and sterility Sodom and Gomorrah.

Why, in the third place, after seven other days, did he again send forth the dove, which did not again return to him ?

44. According to the word, the dove made no more return to him ; but what in fact is meant is virtue, which, however, is not an indication of alienation, since, as I have said before, she was not separated from him at that time, but sent forth like a sun-beam to pay a visit of examination to the natures of others, but then, not finding any one to listen to her precepts of correction, she returns, and properly comes to him alone. But this time she is no longer the possession of one single individual, but is rather a common good to all those who have been willing to receive the emanations of wisdom as if coming up from the earth, those persons, that is, who from the very beginning have laboured under a great thirst of perfect wisdom.

Why in the six hundred and first year of the life of Noah, and on the first day of the first month, did the waters of the deluge cease from off the earth ?

45. The word first, according to the defect of time, is spoken of with reference either to the month or the man, and each interpretation has reason to support it ; for if we are bound to maintain that the water began to abate in the first month, we are equally obliged to consider that the sacred historian intended also to speak of the seventh month, that is, of that month which is the second equinox, since the same month is both the first and the seventh ; that is to say, the first as respects nature and virtue, and the seventh in point of time.

Therefore in another place he says,f " This month is unto you the beginning of months, the first among the months of the year ;" calling that the first which is so in respect of nature and virtue, and which as to number is in time the seventh month, since the equinox has its appointed order in regular series, and in point of time is assigned the better season of the year. But if you take that word first to have reference to the man, then it will be used with more truth, and with strict propriety, for the just man was truly and properly the first, as in a vessel the captain is the first man, and in a state the prince. But he is first not only in virtue, but also in order, inasmuch as in the very circumstances of the

regeneration of the second sowing of the human race he was the beginning and the first.

Moreover, it is very admirably considered with reference to this passage, that the deluge took place during the life of the first man, and that again, when it abated, things returned to their former steadiness, since after the deluge took place he had to live by himself with his whole family, and after that evil was removed he alone was found upon the earth during the latter period of his life until the regeneration of mankind began. ,

But it is not to no purpose that this testimony is given both of the preceding portion of his life, and also of the later period, for he alone burnt with a desire for that genuine life which is in accordance with virtue, while all the rest of the world were hastening on to death by reason of their fatal wickednesses. Therefore of necessity the evil ceased on the six hundred and first year of his life, since in truth the destruction came with reference to the sixth number, and safety was restored in unity, since unity is more a generativeness of the soul, and is the best for giving life, wherefore also a deficiency of water in the sea takes place at the new moon, in order that the units may be preferred in dignity both among months and years, when God saves those things which are upon the earth ; since the man who cultivates just habits is called by the Hebrews in their native language Noah, but by the Greeks he is named Alxaws ; however, he is not exempted from the laws affecting the body.

For although he is not subordinate to the power of others, but is a prince, yet still, because he is nevertheless devoted to death, as he is dead, the principle of that number six is connected with unity ; since it was not in one year taken separately that the deluge ceased, but together with the number six (as contained in the number six hundred), which is connected with it according to corporeality and inequality ; since the other being a long number is in the first place six (that is to say, six hundred) ; on which account it is said, in the six hundred and first year. But the just man is so in his generation, not in that which is general, nor again in that in which he is just by comparison with the general corruption, but according to some especial generation ; for his generation bears with it a certain comparison. But that man also is

076 PHILO JUD^IUS.

deserving of praise whom God selected beyond all other generations as being considered worthy of life, placing a limit to that life, and to him as being about to be both the end and the beginning of each generation aud of each age ; the end of that which is corruptible, the beginning of that which is to follow.

And truly it is much more proper to praise him who, bending upwards with his whole body, looked up by reason of his friendship with God.

What is the meaning of the expression, " And Noahopened the roof of the ark?"

46. The text stands in need of no explanation. But with reference to its meaning, because the ark is symbolically our body, we must consider that that is spoken of as the roof of our body, which covers it and for a long time preserves its strength ; such is concupiscence, by which the body is preserved and made to last, in a moderate degree, that is, and in accordance with the law of nature ; as also it is dissolved by pain.

When therefore the intellect is attracted by a desire for heavenly things it wishes to spring upwards, and in that way it bursts asunder every appearance of concupiscence ; so that that thing being as it were removed which threw a veil of shade over it and obscured it, it might be able to apply its senses to undisguised and incorporeal natures.

Why is it that the earth was dried up in the seventh month, and on the twenty-seventh day ?f

47. Do you not see that he here calls that month the seventh, which a little while before he styles the first ? for the seventh, as far as relates to time, is the same, as I have said before, as that which is the first in nature, being the beginning of the equinox. But it is with great propriety that the beginning of the deluge is fixed to the seventh month, and the twenty-seventh day of the month ; and again, the end and cessation of the deluge is fixed to the same seventh month and the same day ; for, both the deluge and the removal of life took place at the equinox ; the principle of which we have indicated a little time ago ; for the seventh month is found to be synonymous with months and days of this time, and then

Genesis viii. 13. t Genesis viii. 14.

again, the twenty-seventh day occurs with the same meaning, when the ark rested on the mountains.

This is the month which by nature is the seventh, but in point of time the first, which in fact is tlxe month of the equinox. Therefore, at the equinoxes a power of selection is given for seven months and twenty-seven days ; for the deluge took place in the seventh month, on which the vernal equinox takes place ; so that it is in time the seventh, but in nature the first.

And the cessation of the deluge and the display of mercy belong to the same measure, when the ark rested on the tops of the mountains ; again in truth in the seventh month, but not the same month, but in that in which the autumnal equinox occurs ; that is to say, the seventh by nature, but the first in point of time.

But the most perfect cure, the fact of the evil being wholly dried up, is again fixed to the seventh month and the twentyseventh day of the vernal season ; in order that both the beginning and the end of the deluge might find its boundary at the same season ; and that the middle season when human life is repaired, is fixed to the intermediate season.

In the meantime that expression is more certainly to be observed, namely, that the whole year, by a strict computation of days, made the deluge equal to the exact time of the remedy ; for it began in the six hundredth year of Noah's age, in the seventh month, and on the twenty-seventh day ; so that the whole space of the intermediate time completed a perfect year, the beginning being placed at the vernal equinox, and the flood also ending equally at the same epoch of the vernal equinox. And in this manner, after all things on earth, things full of fruit, had undergone destruction, as I have said before, now that the persons who used the fruits were also destroyed, the earth being wholly relieved of all evil was again found full of seeds and fruit-bearing trees, according to the production of spring ; for he thought it reasonable that, as the earth after it had suffered the deluge was in a similar condition when dried again to that in which it was before, so it should now show itself, and pay the debt which it owed to nature.

Nor ought any one to wonder that in one day the earth when left to itself produced every tiling by divine virtue, both seeds

and trees, all complete, entirely and suddenly, with perfect and excellent herbs, and grain, and plants, and fruits ; since in the creation of the world on one day of the six he finished and brought to perfection the whole generatiou of plants. But the present fruits were already perfect in themselves, and produced all kinds of fruits in a manner suitable and corresponding to the season of spring ; for all things are possible to God, who scarcely requires time to effect any thing.

Why was it that after the earth was dried, Noah did not depart out of the ark, before he had received a fresh command from God, for God said to Noah: " Go forth, thou, and thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons' wives, together with all the rest of the living creatures ?"

48. Justice is commonly inspired with fear, as on the other hand injustice is rash and self-confident. But the proof of a fear of God is the not giving up more to, or guiding one's self more by one's own reason than by God. And above all other men it was natural for that man who had seen the whole earth suddenly become an immense sea, to suspect that it might be possible that the same misfortune would again return.

Besides this, he also gave a thought to the corresponding consequence, namely, that as he had entered into the ark at the command of God, so it was fitting that he should also leave it at the command of the same being ; for let no one believe that he can ever do any thing perfectly unless God himself guides him by his preventing precepts.

Why, when they entered into the ark was the order as follows : first himself and his sons, and after them his wife aud his sons' wives, but when they went forth the order was changed, for the sacred historian says, " Noah and his wife went forth, and after them his sons and his sons' wives ?"t

49. By the literal statement the sacred writer gives an obscure intimation, in the order in which they entered, that the propagation of seed was taken away, but by the order of their egress he implies the continuance of the process of generation ; since, while they are entering, the sons are mentioned together with their father, and the daughters-in-law with their motherin-law, but when they are going forth the wives are all mated

Genesis viii. 16. t Genesis viii. 18.

again, the father being accompanied by his wife, and each of his sons also by bis wife, since he chose to show by fact rather than by words everything which it is fitting for his friends to do.

Moreover he had in express words, and not by any vague intimations, commanded the men, as they were about to enter into the ark, that they while there were to keep themselves from connection with women ; but now that they were about to depart from it, he plainly intimates to them that offspring is to be begotten in accordance with nature, by the order in which he appoints their going forth ; nor did he employ words only, in order to make his proclamation about the state of the ark, saying, " After a destruction of all things on earth, of such a character and of such extent, do not indulge in pleasures, for that is not decorous. It is sufficient, however, for you to have received your lives ; but while you are actually in the ark, to ascend up into the marriage-' bed with your wives would be a proof of your being devoted to lasciviousness."

And, indeed, it was natural for them, as being relations to those who were being destroyed, to be moved with compassion for the perishing human race, especially because they themselves also were still in doubt whether, from some quarter or other, calamity might not fall also upon themselves ; and besides these considerations it was absurd, while those who were alive were perishing, for those in the ark to be contriving that others who did not exist should be born, being warm at an unreasonable time, and burning with an inopportune desire. But after the anger of God ceased, then he commanded those who had been delivered from the calamity, when they had again gone forth out of the ark in order, to apply themselves to the procreation of a succeeding generation, when he tells us, that the men did not go forth with the men, nor the women with the women, but the wives with their husbands.

But with respect to the inner meaning of this fact, we must say this, that when the mind is about to wash off and cleanse away its sins, then it is fit for male to live with male, that is to say, for the intellect, the chief part of the man, to be as a father, united to each separate thought, as a father to his sons, without any admixture of the female race, which is in accordance with the outward sense ; since it is a time of battle, in which it is necessary to keep the order of the cohort distinct.

and to preserve it strictly in order, that the soldiers may not be mingled in confusion, and so, instead of gaining a victory over the enemy, be conquered themselves ; but when the purification is completed, and when the soul is dried up from all ignorance, and when a complete deliverance from everything pernicious has taken place, then it becomes the man to collect his scattered forces together, not in order that mascidine counsels may be rendered effeminate by softness, but that the female race, that is to say, the outward senses, may clothe themselves with the vigour of the male, attaining to masculine counsels, and from their receiving seed for the production of a generation ; so that, from this time forth they may cherish, in all things, sentiments of wisdom, and honour, and justice, and courage, and, in one word, of virtue. But, besides this, it will be reasonable also to take notice, that when once a confusion, in the similitude of a deluge, has overwhelmed the intellect, and when the different senses, bejng perplexed by the affairs of this world, like so many bulwarks erected against them, begin to quarrel, it is utterly impossible that any one should be able, either to sow, or to conceive, or to generate any good thing. But when all the hostile attacks of various agitations and passions are checked, and when the ceaseless invasions of lawless counsels are repressed, then the soul produces virtue and excellent works, as the most fertile portion of the earth, when dried, produces fruits.

Why did Noah build an altar without having been commanded to do so ?

50. The requital of gratitude which is due to God ought to be offered to him without command, and without any delay or hesitation, showing the mind to be free from vices ; for it becomes that man, who has been endued with blessings by God, to offer him his thanks with a grateful and willing mind ; but he who delays to do so, waiting for an express command, is ungrateful, being as it were compelled by necessity to honour his benefactor.

Why is he said to have built an altar to God, and not to the Lord ?f

51. In passages of beneficence aud regeneration, as at the * Geucsis viii. 20. t Ibid.

creation of the world, the sacred writer ouly refers to the beneficent virtue of the Creator, by which he makes everything in its integrity, and he implies this by concealing the royal name of Lord, as one which bears with it supreme authority ; therefore now also, since what he is describing is the beginning of the renewed generation of mankind, he borrows for his description the beneficent virtue, which bears the name of God ; for he used the kingly attribute, which declares his imperial power, by which he is called Lord, when he was describing the punishment inflicted by the flood.

What is the meaning of the statement, " He took of the cattle and of the flying animals, and he offered whole burnt offerings on the altar?"

52. All this is said with reference to an inward meaning, both because he received everything from God as a favour and gift ; and also because he took of the clean sorts of animals, and burnt those which were unpolluted and clean, as entire and pure first fruits ; for they are proper victims for good men to offer, and are themselves entire, being full of integrity ; and they may be classed as fruits, for fruit is the end, for the sake of which the plant exists.

This indeed is the literal statement; but with respect to the inner meaning, the clean cattle and the clean birds are the outward senses and intellect of the wise man, with the thoughts which are received in his mind ; all which things it is reasonable to offer in their integrity as entire and perfect fruit, in the way of a display of gratitude to the Father, and to offer them to him as an unpolluted and clean oblation of a victim.

Why does he offer his sacrifice to the beneficent virtue of God, but the acceptance of it takes place by means of both the qualities of the Lord and God, for Moses says, "And the Lord God smelled a savour of sweetness ?"f

53. He says this since, when unexpectedly, after all hope is gone, we are preserved from dangers which are coming over us, we then, looking solely at the beneficence of him who has preserved us, do, on account of our joy, display ingratitude, and refer the benefits which we have received rather to the be-

neficent power than to the Lora. But the beneficent preserver himself, by means of both his attributes, looks down upon and honourably accepts grateful minds, that he may not appear to halt in rewarding them ; but he declares that such a display of gratitude is pleasing to both attributes of the one God.

"What is the meaning of the words, " And the Lord God said, repenting him, I will not again proceed to curse the earth for the works of man, for the thoughts of the mind of man are toward, and are diligently and ceaselessly exercised in, wickeduess from his youth up ; therefore I will not now proceed to smite all living flesh as I have done at other times ?''f

54. The reasons alleged appear to indicate a change of purpose, which is an affection not usual nor akin to the divine virtue ; for the dispositions of mankind are variable and inconstant, so that all affairs among them are altogether uncertain ; but with God nothing is uncertain, nothing incomprehensible, for he is a being of mighty and consistent determination ; how then, when reasons of the same kind are present to him, because he was forsooth aware from the very beginning that the mind of man was deliberately inclined to wallow in wickedness from his youth on, could he have originally intended to destroy the human race by a flood ; and yet afterwards say, that he did not intend to destroy it any more, when the same evils still exist in the mind ? But we must think that every kind of expression of this sort is, by law, connected with learning and the utility of instruction rather than with the nature of truth, since there are, as it were, two kinds which occur in the whole course of the law ; in the first place, as it is said, " Not as a man ;" and in the second place, as it is said, " As a man," the one God is believed to instruct his son.

That first expression relates to the actual truth ; for, in real fact, God is not as a man, nor again, as the sun, nor as the heaven, nor as the world, which is perceptible by the outward senses, but as God, if it is justifiable to assert that also ; since that most happy and blessed being will not endure similitude, or comparison, or enigmatical description ; nay, rather he sur-

Or, " But the one God very much likes to act by means of both his attributes." — Note to the Latin version. ■f Genesis viii. 21.

passes even blessedness and felicity itself, and whatever can be imagined as better than and preferable to them.

But the second expression relates to instruction and direction, I mean the express words, " As a man," in order that it may be observed, that he is willing to impress us beings, born of the earth, lest perchance we should unceasingly incur his anger and his chastisement by our implacable hostility to him, without any peace ; for it is sufficient for him to be roused and embittered against us once, and once to exact vengeance against sinners ; but to inflict punishment over and over again for the same thing is the conduct of a savage and ferocious disposition : since, says he, " when I shall inflict deserved retribution, as is possible, on every one, I will cause a burning recollection of my design to be preserved."

Therefore behold, the sacred historian has excellently expressed himself, saying, " That God observed in his mind," for his mind and disposition rejoice in a superior degree of constancy ; but our wills are found to be inconsistent and vacillating, on which account we cannot be properly said to observe and think with our minds, since it is by the thoughts that the passage of the mind is allowed to take place,* but the human intellect is unable to be extended over everything, since it is incapable of penetrating all things in a perfect and suitable manner.

But that expression, " I will not proceed any more to curse the earth," is used with great propriety, for it is not becoming to add more curses to what has already been done, because the evils that have been inflicted are already complete ; because, although they are in some sense imperfect, inasmuch as the Father is kind and merciful, and most humane, still he is rather inclined to alleviate the evil than to add to men's misery. But that is as it were the same thing, according to a common proverb, to wash a brick, or to draw water properly, and wholly to eradicate wickedness, with all its deeply imprinted tokens from the mind of man ; for if it is implanted in it at first, it does not exist accidentally, but is engraven deeply on it and clings to it.

But since the mind is a potential and principal part of the

" If you connect the Armenian words in a different manner, the sense will be ' meditation is the purification of the course of the mind,' and this is perhaps better." — Note by the Latin Translator.

soul, he introduces that word " diligently ;" but that which has been weighed with diligence and care is exquisite thought, examined more certainly than certainty itself. But this diligence does not tend to any one evil, but as is plain, to mischief, and to all mischief; nor does it exist in a perfunctory manner ; but man is devoted to it from his youth, not only in a manner, but from his very cradle, as if he were in some degree united to, and nourished, and bred up with sin.

But yet Grod says, " I will not any more smite all flesh ;" giving notice that he will not, at any future time, destroy every portion of mankind altogether, but only single individuals, in ever such great numbers, who perpetrate unspeakable wickednesses ; for he does not leave wickedness unpunished, nor does he grant it liberty or impunity, but indulging his care for the human race on account of his original design, he of necessity fixes destruction as a punishment for sinners.

"What is the meaning of the expression, " Sowing-time and harvest, cold and heat, summer and spring, shall not cease day nor night?"

55. If taken literally this expression signifies the continuation of the duration of the annual seasons, and that the earthly temperature adapted to animals and plants is not again to be destroyed ; since indeed, if the weather is corrupted it would corrupt them likewise, and if it is preserved in its existing state it would preserve them also safe and sound ; for it is according to the weather and temperature that all animals and plants are preserved safe and sound, without any infirmity, being accustomed, in some measure, to be produced separately, in an admirable way, and to grow up together. But nature is like a harmony, composed of opposite sounds, both flat and sharp ; for thus, also, the world is compounded of opposite qualities, for when, in the first place, the mortal commixtures of cold and heat, of moisture and dryness, preserve their natural order, without any confusion, they are themselves a cause which prevents destruction from overwhelming everything upon the earth.

But if we regard the inward sense of the passage, the seed time is the beginning and the harvest time is the end, and both the beginning and the end are concurrent causes of safety, for either thing alone is by itself imperfect, because the beginning requires an end, and the end has a natural inclination for the beginning; but cold and heat bring round winter and autumn ; for the autumn is fiery, but only in such a degree as succeeding in its annual revolution to cool the fiery summer.

And, symbolically, with reference to the mind, cold indicates fear, since it causes terror and trepidation ; but heat indicates anger, because an angry disposition bears in itself a resemblance to flame and fire ; for it is necessary that those things should always exist and always remain among created and corruptible beings ; since summer and spring have been instituted for the production of fruits ; spring for the perfecting of the seeds, and summer for the perfecting of fruits and the buds of trees.

These things indeed are discerned symbolically in addition to the inward sense of the words, producing a double fruit ; what is necessary being computed in the season of spring, and what is superfluous in the summer. Therefore necessary food is for the most part for the body, being whatever is produced freely from seeds ; as virtues are necessary for the soul. But as many fruits as come by way of excess from trees in summer, besides the advantage which they are to the body, do also bring corporeal goods to the mind, as external advantages : for these external advantages are subservient to the body, and the body is subservient to the mind, and the mind to God. But day and night are the measures of times and numbers ; and time and number exist without interruption. Day indicates lucid wisdom, and night betokens obscure folly.

"Why was it that God, blessing Noah and his sons, said, " Increase, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and rule over it ; and let your fear and the dread of you be upon all beasts, and upon flying fowls, and upon reptiles, and upon the fishes which I have placed under your hand ? "

56. This devotion of the inferior animals to man, God

also at the beginning of the creation bestowed on the sixth day upon man, after he had created him in his own image ; for the scripture saith, " And God made man ; in the image of God created he him ; male and female created he them. And God blessed them, and said, Be fruitful, -and multiply, and replenish the earth ; and be ye lords over it, and be ye rulers of the fishes, and of the flying fowls, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth."

And did he not by these words evidently intimate that Noah, at the beginning of what we may call the second creation of mankind, was found equal in honour to that creature who in the first instance was made as to his form in the likeness of himself? Therefore he equally assigned both to the one and to the other the principality and power over all the creatures that live upon the earth.

But do thou diligently take notice that he showed this man, who at the time of the deluge was the only just man and the king of all the creatures which live upon the earth, to be equal in honour, not to the identical man who was first created and formed out of the earth, but to that one who was made according to the likeness and form of the true incorporeal entity, to whom also he gives power, making him a king, not the very created man (or the man formed out of the earth), but him who is according to his form and similitude, that is to say, incorporeal.

Wherefore also the creation of that man, who as to his form is incorporeal, was marked to have taken place on the sixth day, in accordance with the perfect number six ; but the creation of that man who was created after the completion of the world and subsequent to the generation of all animals on the seventh day, because it is after that that the manly figure was fashioned out of clay. Therefore after the days of generation he says, " on the seventh day of the world ;" for God had not yet rained upon the earth, and no man did exist who could cultivate the earth. And then he proceeds to say, " But God formed a man out of the clay of the earth, and breathed into his face the breath of life, and man became a living soul."

Therefore how he can be made worthy of the same kingly power according to the image of the man thus formed, he, I mean, who is the beginning of the second creation of man-

kind, is indicated by the letter of the history that relates these events.

But with reference to the inward sense of the passage we must give an explanation in the following manner. God wills that the souls of wise men should increase in the magnitude and multitude of the beauty of their virtues, and should fill the mind as if it were the earth with those beauties, leaving no portion empty and void so as to become occupied by folly. And he wills also that they should rule over, and strike terror into, and inflict alarm upon all beasts ; that is to say, he wills that all wickedness should be subdued by their will, since wickedness is of an untamed and savage nature. Also he willed that they should be lords over all flying fowls, which by reason of their lightness are raised on high, being armed with courage and empty pride, and which thus cause the greatest mischief, being scarcely controlled at all by fear. Moreover, he made them rulers over all creeping things, which are the symbols of destructive vices, for they creep through the whole soul, namely, concupiscence, desire, sadness, and cowardice, striking and goading ; as also they are indicated by the fishes, which eagerly cultivate a moist and delicate life, but one which is far from being sober, wise, or lasting.

"Why does God say, " Every creeping thing which lives shall be to you for food ? "

57. Creeping things are of a twofold nature ; some being venomous, and others domestic. The venomous ones are serpents, which, instead of feet, use their bellies and breasts, creeping upon the earth ; but the domestic ones are those which have legs above their feet. This is the Literal meaning of the statement.

But if we look to the inward sense of it, then the creeping things represent the foul vices, but the clean ones represent joy ; for in connexion with the passion of concupiscence there will exist joy and pleasure ; and in connexion with desire there will be will and counsel, and in connexion with sorrow goading and compunction, and in connexion with avidity there will be fear.

Therefore such disordered perturbations of the passions

threaten souls with death and destruction ; but the joys do really live, as he himself has warned us in an allegory ; and they also give life to those who possess them.

"What is the meaning of the expression, " As the green herb I have given you all things ? "

58. Some persons say that by this expression, "As the green herb I have given you all things," the eating of flesh was permitted. But I say that even though God had intended to give that permission, still that before all things he must have intended to establish by law the necessary use of herbs, that is to say of vegetables. And under the general name of herb he includes all the other additional descriptions of green food, without mentioning them expressly in the law. But now the power of this command is adapted not to one nation alone among all the select nations of the earth which are desirous of wisdom, among which religious continence is honoured, but to all mankind, who cannot possibly be universally prohibited from eating flesh.

Nevertheless, perhaps the present expression has no reference to eating food, but rather to the possession of the power to do so ; for in fact every herb is not necessarily good to eat, nor again is it the uniform and invariable food of all uniform living animals ; since God said that some herbs were poisonous and deadly, and yet they are included in the number all. Perhaps therefore, I say, he means to express this, that all brute beasts are subjected to the power of man, as we sow herbs and take care of them by the cultivation of the land.

What is the meaning of the expression, " You shall not eat flesh in the blood of its life ? " t

59. God appears by this command to indicate that the blood is the substance of the soul; I mean of that soul which exists by the external senses and by vitality, not of that which is spoken of with a certain especial pre-eminence, beincr the rational and intellectual soul ; for there are three parts of the human soul ; one the nutritive part, another that which is connected with the external senses, and the third that which exists in reason. Therefore the rational

part' is the substance of the divine spirit according to the sacred writer Moses : for in his account of the creation of the world, he says, " God breathed into his face the breath of life," as being what was to constitute his life. But of that part of the soul which is connected with the external senses and with vitality, blood is the substance ; for he says in another place, "The blood exists in every breath of flesh."

It is with great propriety in fact that he has called the blood the breath of all flesh, because there are in the flesh senses and passions, but not intellect nor thoughts. But again by the expression "the spiritof blood," he intimates that the spirit is one thing and the blood another ; so that the essence of the soul is truly and beyond all possible question spirit. But that spirit has a place not by itself separately, apart from the blood in the body ; but it is interwoven and mingled with the blood.

As also the veins which exhibit a pulse, as if they were vessels to convey breathing, bear with them most unmixed and pure air, but blood likewise, though perhaps in a less degree ; for there are two vessels, the veins and the breathing channels ; but the veins have more blood than breath, and the breathing channels have more breath than blood. Therefore the proper admixture in each vessel is distinct, as the greater and the lesser proportion.

This is the meaning of these words when taken literally ; but if we look to their inner meaning, he calls the blood of the soul that warm and fiery virtue belonging to it which we name courage. And he who is full of this wisdom despises all food, and every pleasure of the belly, and of those parts which are below the belly. But if any one adopts a profligate life, and becomes a wanderer like the wind, and gradually inactive from laziness and a luxurious life, he in fact does nothing else but fall upon his belly, as a reptile creeping upon the earth, and greedily licking up earthlythings, closing his life without ever tasting of that heavenly food which the souls which are desirous of wisdom receive.

"What is the meaning of the expression, " The blood of your souls will I require from every beast, and from the hand of man's brother will I require the life of man ? "

60. The multitude of creatures which do injury is twofold ; some being beasts, and others men. But beasts are rather the least injurious of the two, because they have no actual familiarity with those whom they wish to injure, principally because they do not fall under their power, but destroy those who have properly power over them. But when he speaks of brothers, he means men who are murderers, intimating these three things. First of all, that all we men are akin to one another, and are brothers, being connected with one another according to the relation of the highest kind of kindred ; for we have received a lot, as being the children of one and the same mother, rational nature.

In the second place, he intimates that very commonly numerous and terrible quarrels arise, and acts of treachery take place, between relations, and rather between brothers, on account of the division of their inheritance, or on account of some superiority of dignity in the household ; since a quarrel between those of the same family is worse and altogether unseemly, because brothers who are really so by the ties of nature meet in contest with a great knowledge of one another's internal circumstances ; being therefore well aware what kind of attack they must employ in their present warfare.

But, in the third place, as it appears to me, he employs the appellation of brothers in order to warn men of the implacable and severe punishment which is reserved for murderers ; that they, without meeting any compassion, shall suffer what they have inflicted ; for they have not slain strangers, but their own brothers in blood.

It is with exceeding great propriety that he calls God the protector and overseer of those who are slain by man ; for although men despise the revenge, yet let them not behave negligently, but although impure men of savage disposition escape for the moment from danger, still let them know that they are already caught and brought before the greater tribunal of justice, namely, before the divine judgmentseat, which rises up to inflict vengeance on the wicked for the defence of those who have received shameful and unworthy treatment.

This is the literal meaning of the words ; but if we look to the inward sense of them they have a regard to the merit of

the purity of the soul, to which it is suitable to avoid unceasing destruction brought in from outward parts ; which merit, that propitious and beneficent being, the most merciful and only Saviour, does not despise ; but he expels and destroys all its enemies who stand around it, calling them beasts, and men brothers; for beasts are asymbolical expressionforfurious men threatening calamitous death ; but men and brothers are both separate individual thoughts, and words uttered by mouth and tongue, because they are akin to them, and, by consequence, they bring on great and destructive evils, leaving no stone unturned, no work or word omitted to do injury-

What is the meaning of the expression, "Whoso sheddeth man's blood by man shall his blood be shed ? "

61. There is no excess in this declaration, but rather an indication of a still more formidable denunciation, because he says, " He himself shall be poured out like blood who pours out blood." For that which is poured out flows forth and is lost, so that it has no longer any power or substance. And by this he shadows forth the fact that the souls of those who perpetrate unworthy actions imitate the mortal body in its corruption, as far as corruption is accustomed to come upon individuals ; for the body is then dissolved into those parts of which it was composed, returning into its proper elements. But the miserable soul, labouring under distresses, is borne hither and thither by the overflow of a lascivious life ; and the very evils which have grown up along with it are accustomed to suffer the same overflow, in the manner of the parts of the limbs.

Why is it that he speaks as if of some other god, saying that he made man after the image of God, and not that he made him after his own image ?f

62. Very appropriately and without any falsehood was this oracular sentence uttered by God, for no mortal thing could have been formed on the similitude of the supreme Father of the universe, but only after the pattern of the second deity, who is the Word of the supreme Being; since it is fitting that the rational soul of man should

Sg2 PHILO JUD.EUS.

bear before it the type of the divine Word ; since in his first Word God is superior to the most rational possible nature. But he who is superior to the Word holds his rank in a better and most singular pre-eminence, and how could the creature possibly exhibit a likeness of him in himself ? Nevertheless he also wished to intimate this fact, that God does rightly and correctly require vengeance, in order to the defence of virtuous and consistent men, because such bear in themselves a familiar acquaintance with his Word, of which the human mind is the similitude and form.

What is the meaning of the words, "There shall not again be a deluge to destroy all the earth ? "

G3. By his last saying he declares sufficiently that there may be various inundations, but that there shall never be one of such a character as to be able to change the whole earth into a lake or sea.

This is the literal meaning of this saying.

But if we look to its inward sense, there a divine kindness is intimated, according to which, although it is not every part of the soul which is allowed to make proficiency in every virtue, still some are adorned in a considerable degree. So that, supposing any one is not able to display excellence in his whole body, he still may labour with all diligence to acquire all the means in his power to display excellence ; and that exertion is within his reach. And it does not follow that if any one is less highly endowed, or is unable to make every portion of his life altogether perfect, that he is on that account to despair of those things which he is able to do and to attain to.

Since as there is power in every individual, he who does not exert himself in accordance with it is both idle and ungrateful ; idle because of his laziness, and ungrateful because, though he has received most excellent means, he still sets himself in opposition to the essential qualities of things.

Why does God say that, as a sign that he will never again bring a deluge over the whole earth, he will place his bow in the clouds ?f

64. Some persons imagine that by the bow he means that thing which by some is called Jupiter's belt, from its figure, dwelling on its continual similitude to the rainbow ; but I do not perceive that that has been positively asserted. In the first place, because the bow aforesaid ought to have a peculiar and essential nature of its own, because it is called the bow of God ; for he says, " I will set my bow in the clouds." But that which belongs to God and is said to have been set in any place as his, indicates plainly that it i3 not devoid of essence or of substance.

But the belt of Jupiter has not, properly speaking, anyseparate nature of its own, but is merely an appearance of the solar rays on a wet cloud, all the phsenomena of which are non-existent and incorporeal. And moreover, this is a further proof of that, that it is never seen at night, though clouds exist by night as well as by day.

In the second place, we must also say that even in the day-time, when clouds obscure the whole face of heaven, the belt of Jupiter is never at all seen in them. But what remains may also be affirmed without any falsehood, when the Maker of the law says, "I will set my bow in the clouds;" for, behold, while clouds are present there is no appearance of the belt of Jupiter visible. But he said, " "Where there is a collection of clouds let there be a bow seen in the clouds." Still it often happens, when the clouds are collected and when the air is obscured and thickened, that no appearance of a rainbow is seen anywhere.

We must consider, therefore, whether haply the sacred historian indicates something else by this mention of the bow, namely, that in the very exercise of the mercy of God, and also in the moment of his bitterness towards men on earth, there still shall not be any ultimate destruction of them, in the fashion of a bow, which is too soft and unfit for such a purpose, nor shall there be any violence added, so as to cause a rapid destruction, but there shall be a moderate determination, each attribute being carefully measured; for the great deluge took place with a breaking asunder and disruption of the clouds and of all things ; as he himself asserts, when he says, " The fountains of the deep were broken up." And yet it was not an unmeasured vehemence.

Moreover, a bow is not itself a weapon, but only au m-

strument for the use of weapons, namely, for the arrow which strikes ; and the arrow being sent forth by means of the bow strikes a part which is at a distance, while the part3 which are nearest to it remain unhurt. And this is given as a proof that the whole earth shall never for the future suffer any del age, since no one arrow ever hits all places, but only those which are at a distance.

Therefore the divine virtue, being invisible, is symbolically indicated by the bow in the cloud ; being in truth dissolved according to the figure of tranquillity, and condensed in accordance with a cloud ; so that it does not permit all the clouds to be altogether dissolved into water, so that the earth may not be made a lake by an inundation, which it carefully forbids, and arranges the condensation of air, checking it as by a bridle, though it is at that time the more accustomed to exhibit itself as rebellious by reason of its excessive fulness. For by reason of the clouds it also shows itself to be replenished, dripping, and saturated.

Why is it that after the sons of the just man have been named Shem, Ham, and Japhet, he relates only the generations of the middle one, saying, " And Ham was the father of Canaan ;" and afterwards he adds, " These are the three sons of Noah?"

65. Mentioning four men, Noah and his sons, he says that these were obedient. Because the grandson Canaan was in his habits like his father who begat him, on that account, instead of mentioning only one, he includes both in his enumeration, so that they are four in number, three in virtue. But in the meantime in the scripture he mentions only the generations of the middle one, on account of the just man whom he is going to speak of subsequently, because although he was his father, since Ham is the father of Canaan, still he does not mention the father with blame, but wdth respect to the man with whom he thought it fair that the son should be a partaker, he yet did not give the father a participation with him.

In the second place, perhaps he thus gives a premonitory warning also to those persons who by the acuteness of their mental vision can see a long way oft' what is at a distance,

namely, that he designs to take away the land of the Canaanites from them after the lapse of many ages, and to give it to his chosen people who are thoroughly devoted to God. Therefore he chooses to designate the chief inhabitant of that region, namely Canaan, and to show that he both practised singular and peculiar wickedness of his own, and also all the wickedness of his father, so that in every part he might be convicted of an ignoble slavery and submission.

This is the literal meaning of these words. But if we have a regard to the inward sense, he does not saythat Ham had a son named Canaan, but he predicates offspring of him alone, saying, "Ham was the father of Canaan." Since such a disposition as that of Ham is always the father of such designs as those of Canaan, and that the very names themselves intimate this. For if we translate them into another language, Ham means heat or hot ; and Canaan means merchants, or buyers, or causes, or recipients.

Accordingly, he is not now speaking manifestly of generations, nor is he saying that one man is the father or the son of another man, but he is evidently demonstrating the connection between one counsel and another, by reason of its alienation from all familiarity with virtue.

About the cultivation of the earth.

What is the meaning of the statement, " Noah began to be a cultivator of the earth ?"

66. He is here comparing ISToah to the first created man who was formed out of the earth ; for in that manner also does he speak of him when he came forth out of the ark ; since both then and now there took place a first beginning of the cultivation of the land, each being after a deluge. For also, at the time of the original creation of the world the earth was, as it were, a lake, being covered by an inundation of water, for the sacred historian could not tell us that God said," Let the waters be gathered together into one body, and let the dry land appear," unless it had previously been inundated with waters which now returned into certain depths of the earth.

Nor again is the expression a purposeless one, " He began to be a tiller of the earth," for in the second generation he

was himself the beginning of men, and also of seed, and of the cultivation of the land, and. of the life of all other things. This is the literal meaning of the words.

But if we look to their inner sense, a distinction is made between being a cultivator of the earth and a tiller' of it ; as the murderer of his brother is represented as tilling the earth, but not as cultivating it. For by the earth our body is symbolically represented, which is by its nature earthly, and which the unjust and wicked man tills like a lazy hireling, but which the man endued with virtue cultivates like a skilful manager of plants and an agriculturist of good works appointed to superintend it. Because the workman of the body, the mind, as being carnal, procures carnal pleasures ; but the cultivator of the earth is careful to produce useful fruits, those, namely, which are to be obtained by the study of continence, and modesty, and sound wisdom ; and he prunes away all superfluous excesses and bad habits which spring up around, like the thin and misplaced branches of trees.

Why does the just man first plant a vineyard ?

It was very natural for it to be a subject of anxiety and doubt to him in what quarter he was to find any plants after the deluge, when everything upon the earth was destroyed. Therefore it appeared natural, as was said a little while ago, that the earth was made dry in the spring season ; therefore when the spring produced the buds of trees, the roots and stems of the vine could easily be found by the just man still alive, and might thus be collected by him.

But we have to consider why the first thing he did was to plant a vineyard, and why he did not rather sow wheat and barley, since the latter are necessary productions of the earth, without which life cannot be supported, but the former is only a material for superfluous pleasure. The answer is that Noah, adopting a salutary design, consecrated and offered up to God those things which are necessary to support life and which require no co-operation for the production of the fruit ; but the superfluous plants he devoted to men ; for the use of wine is superfluous and not necessary. As therefore God ordered fountains of water fit to drink to

burst up from the earth without the co-operation of man, so he also of his own accord granted to man in a similar manner wheat and barley, in order that he himself might be the sole giver of each kind of food which serves for necessary eating and drinking. But he did not take away the power nor grudge them providing for themselves by their own industry those things which contribute to pleasure.

"What is the meaning of the statement, " He drank of the wine and was drunken ?"

68. In the first place, the just man did not drink the wine, but a portion of the wine, not the whole of it ; in which case an incontinent and debauched man does not quit his means of debauchery, till he has first swallowed all the wine that there is before him ; but by the religious and sober man everything necessary for food is used in a moderate degree. And the expression, "he was drunken," is here to be taken simply as equivalent to "he used the wine."

But there are two modes of getting drunk, the one is that of an intemperate sottishness which misuses wine, and this offence is peculiar to the depraved and wicked man ; the other is the use of wine, and this belongs to the wise. It is therefore in the second of these meanings that the consistent and wise Noah is here called drunken, not as having misused but as having used wine.

What is the meaning of the statement, " He was naked in his house ? "f

69. This is a praise of the wise man both in the literal sense of the words, and also in their hidden meaning, that his exhibition of nakedness took place not out of doors but in his house, being concealed by the roof and walls of his house ; for the nakedness of the body is concealed by a house which is made of stones and beams of wood : but the covering and clothing of the soul is the discipline of wisdom.

Therefore there are two kinds of nakedness, one which takes place by accident, which is the result of an involuntary offence, because the just man,using,if Imay say so, his honesty as if it were a garment with which he is clothed, stumbles out of his own accord ldte men who are intoxicated, or who

are afflicted with insanity ; for in such men their offences are not deliberately committed : but it is bis task and pleasing duty to ciotbe himself, as with a garment, with the discipline and study of honesty.

There is also anotber kind of nakedness of the soul which is caused by perfect virtue, which expels from itself the whole carnal weight of the body, as if it were flying from a tomb, as indeed it has long been buried in it as in a tomb ; as also it avoids pleasures, and also a great number of miseries arising from the different passions and many anxieties arising from misfortunes, and indeed all the evil effects of tbese different circumstances. He therefore, who has been able with distinction to pass through such various and great dangers, and to escape such injuries, and to emancipate himself from such evils, has attained to the destiny of happiness, without any stain or disgrace ; for I should pronounce this to be the ornament and badge of beauty in those individuals who have been rendered worthy to pass their existence in an incorporeal manner.

Why is it that the sacred writer has not simply said, Ham saw his nakedness, but Ham the father of Canaan saw the nakedness of his father ?

70. By stating the fact thus, he both blames the son in the father and the father in the son, a3 performing together in common the deed of folly, and iniquity, and impiety, and every other kind of wickedness. This is the literal meaning of the statement ; and as to the inner sense, we must look at that in the same manner in which we have hitherto treated these subjects.

"What is the meaning of the statement, " He told it to his two brothers out of doors ? " f

71. The sacred historian is here adding to the gravity of the transaction. In the first place, because he did not report the involuntary evil of his father to one brother only, but to both of them ; and no doubt if he had had any more he would have told it to them all, as he did in fact to every one he could ; and he did so with ridicule in his very words,

making a jest of -what ought not to have been treated with laughter and derision, but rather with shame and fear mingled with reverence.

In the second place,* when the historian says he told it them, not in the house but out of the house, he evidently points out that he displayed his father when naked, not only to his brothers, but also to the bystanders with whom they were, both men and women.

This is the literal information conveyed by the words. But if we look to their inward meaning, then we shall see that a depraved and malignant habit of life is full of derision and contempt : and it is a bad thing to judge of the miseries of others even by one's self like a chastising judge. But in this case what has happened is worse than this, for any man with a joyful mind to ridicule the involuntary misfortune of a devoted disciple of wisdom, and to make a song of and proclaim abroad his misery, is the part of a thoroughly hostile accuser, who ought rather to have pardoned such an occurrence than to have added accusation or vituperation to it.

Moreover, because these three things are, as I have said before, as it were brothers together ; namely, good, bad, and indifferent, being all the offspring of one parent thought : in accordance with each of these principles, they have been found to be overseers, some celebrating virtues with praise, others upholding acts of malignity, and others supporting riches and honours and other good things which, however, are not attached to and which are external to the body.

The overseers who emulate wickedness rejoice at the fall of the wise man, and ridicule and disparage him, as if he had done no good by the part which he adopts and to which he applies himself as better for the mind, or for his body, or for his external circumstances, to his internal virtues or to any of the good things which are around and exterior to his body. Unless indeed that man alone is eminently able to attain his object, who applies himself to iniquity, as that alone is accustomed to confer advantages on human life.

Pronouncing these and similar precepts, those who are overseers of iniquity ridicule those who devote themselves to virtue, and to those things by which virtue is produced and consolidated : as some look upon those things to be

400 PIIILO JUD^EUS.

which are around the body, and outside it, and which may be regarded in the light of instruments serving to that end.

What is the meaning of the statement, " Shem and Japhet, talcing a garment, laid it upon both their shoulders and went backwards, and covered the nakedness of their father, and they themselves did not see it ? "

72. The literal meaning of the statement is evident ; but with respect to the inner sense contained in it, we must say that the light man who is in too great haste only sees those things which are before his eyes and exposed to his sight : but that the evil man also sees those things which are at his back, that is to say, the future.

And since what is posterior is postponed to what is anterior, so is what is future to what is present, the sight of which is peculiar to the virtuous and wise man, who in truth is a second Lynceus, being according to the fables gifted with eyes in every part.

Therefore every wise man, who is not so much man as actual intellect, walks backward, that is to say, he sees what is behind him or future, as if it were placed in brilliant light ; and seeing every thing on all sides of him with a perfect sight, and looking all around him, he is found to be armed, and protected, and fortified, so that no part of his soul is ever found naked or in an unseemly plight, on account of any accidents which occur unfortunately.

What is the meaning of the statement, " And Noah became sober after the wrine ? "f

73. The literal meaning is too notorious. Therefore we need only here speak of what concerns the inner sense of the words. When the intellect is strengthened, it is able by its soberness to discern with a certain accuracy all things, both before and behind it, both present, I mean, and future ; but the man who can see neither what is present nor what is future with accuracy, is afflicted by blindness ; but he who sees the present, but who cannot also foresee the future, and is not at all cautious, such a man is overcome by drunkenness and intoxication ; and he, lastly, who is found to be able to look all around him, and to see, and

discern, and comprehend the different natures of things, both present and future, the watchfulness of sobriety is in that man.

"Why is it that after the sacred historian has enumerated Ham in the middle of the offspring of Noah, or has placed him in the middle between his brethren, he nevertheless points out that he was the younger, saying, " Noah saw what his younger son had done to him ? "

74. This is a manifest allegory, because he here takes as the younger, not him who was so in age and in point of time, but him who was younger in mind ; since wickedness is unable to attain to a perception of the learning which is proper to the elder ; but the elder thoughts belong to a will which is truly growing old, not indeed in body, but in mind.

Why did Noah when praying for Shem speak thus : " Blessed is the Lord God, the God of Shem : and Canaan shall be his servant ?" f

75. The names Lord and God are here used together on account of his principal attributes, both of benevolence and of kingly power by which the world was created ; for as king he created the world according to his beneficence ; but after he had completed it then the world was arranged and set in order by his attribute of kingly power. Therefore he at that time rendered the wise man worthy of a common honour, which the whole world also received, all the parts of the world being formed in an admirable manner with the attributes of the Lord and God, doing so by his especial prerogative, munificently pouring forth the favour and liberality of his beneficent power.

And it is on this account that the beneficent power of God is mentioned twice. Once, as has been already stated, being placed in opposition to his kingly power; and a second time without any such connexion, in order, forsooth, that the wise man having been rendered worthy of his gifts, both such as are common to him with others and such as are peculiar to himself, he might also be rendered acceptable both to the world and to God ; to the world on account of

the excellence imparted to Mm in common with it, and to God for such as was peculiar to himself.

"Why, when Noah prayed for Japhet, did he say, " God shall enlarge Japhet, and bid him to dwell in the house of Shem : and Canaan shall be their servant ? "

76. "Without examining the literal statement, for the meaning of that is plain, we had better approach the inner sense contained in it, and examine that, in which the second and third blessings mentioned are capable of an enlarged and ample extension. As, for instance, good health, and a vigorous state of the outward senses, and beauty, and strength, and opulence, and nobleness of birth, and friends, and the power of a prince, and numbers of other things. And on this account he said, " God shall enlarge," &c.

Because taken separately, the abundant possession of such numerous and great blessings has of itself been injurious to many persons who have scarcely dwelt with justice, or wisdom, or any other virtues, the complete possession of which dispenses to manin an admirable manner the advantages which are external to and which surround the body ; but the deprivation or absence of them leaves him without the enjoyment or use of them ; and man, if deprived of all good protectors, and of the use of these enjoyments, is exposed to as much suffering as he is capable of. Therefore he prays on behalf of the man who has those things which are around and exterior to the body, that he may dwell in the house of the wise man ; so that attending to the rules of all good men he may see and regulate his own course by their example.

"Why because Ham had sinned did God pronounce that his son Canaan should be the servant of Ham and Japhet ? f

77. In the first place, God pronounced this sentenca because both father and son had displayed the same wickedness, being both united together and not separated, and both indulging in the same disposition.

But in the second place, he did so because the father would be exceedingly afflicted at the curse thus laid upon the son, being sufficiently conscious that he was punished

not so much for his own sake as for that of his father. And so the leader and master of the two suffered the punishment of his wicked counsels, and words, and actions.

This is the literal meaning of the statement. But if we look to its inward meaning, then in reality they are no more two different men than two different dispositions. And this is made plain by the names given to them, which manifestly denote the nature of the facts ; for Ham being interpreted means heat or hot ; and Canaan means merchants or causes.

"Why was it that Noah lived after the deluge three hundred and fifty years ?

78. It is now declared that in two periods of seven years the form of the world was originally created and now renewed under Noah. But the wise man lives for a period of fourteen quarters of a century ; and fourteen times twenty-five is equal to seven times fifty, or fifty times seven. And it is the principle of the seventh year and also of the fiftieth, which has an especial order of its own explained and ordained in Leviticus.

Why among the three sons of Noah does Ham appear always to occupy the middle place, but the two extremities are varied ; for when their birth is mentioned, Shem is placed in the first rank, in this manner, Shem, Ham, and Japhet; but when they are spoken of as fathers, then Japhet is mentioned first, and the beginning of the enumeration of the nation is derived from Japhet himself ? f

79. Those who inquire into the literal nature of the divine writings think thus of the order in which these men are mentioned, looking upon him who is the first named, that is Shem, as the younger ; and upon him who is named the last, that is Japhet, as the elder. However they may choose to think of this let them, being guided by the principle of mere opinion. But we who look to the real meaning of these statements think that there is here a reference to the three things, good, bad, and indifferent; which last are called secondary goods ; and we must therefore think that the sacred writer always puts the bad in the

middle, so that being confined at either extremity it may be subdued on one side by the one, and on the other side by the other ; so that, being confined, it may be kept in and subdued.

But the good and the indifferent, or secondary good, change the order with one another ; for when there is such great evil present, and yet not wholly and altogether, the good rejoices in the first place, having the position of the dispenser and chief of the whole. But when it is placed in the position of the will in a state of conspiracy, and injustice remains not only in the intellect but is also conducted to its end by unjust works, then that first good is changed from its original order into another place, together with all the good habits which depend upon it, rejecting all education and all arrangement, as being wholly unable to attain its proposed end, just as a physician does when he sees an incurable disease.

But the elder good manages that virtue which is around the body and exterior to it ; therefore, by observing the extremities with greater caution, and closing in the beast within its toils, it is sufficiently demonstrated that it does not dare to bite or injure any more. But while it feels that it has done no injury, it is transferred into a more secure and more permanent position, and then, a higher and better fortified place being assigned to it, it easily retains the lower position too as one easy to be preserved ; for, in consequence of the superior power of its guardian, it is always practicable to watch it closely, since nothing is more mighty than virtue.

Why do the people of Ceos, and of Rhodes, and the isles of the Gentiles, spring from Japhet ?

80. Since he has the name denoting breadth (namely Japhet), being expanded in his growth and increase, that part of the things of the world which have been assigned by nature for the use of mankind, that is to say, the earth, can no longer hold him, therefore he passes over into the other part, that is to say, the sea and the islands belonging to it.

This is the literal meaning of the statement.

But if we look to its inner sense, all the external blessings which are bestowed by nature, such as riches, and honour, and principalities, are lavished and poured forth in every direction on those men into whose hands they come, and are also extended widely to others who are not so much within reach ; so that in a greater, or at all events, in no less a degree do they surround and hem the man in, in accordance with the greediness of the lovers of riches and glory, since they are eager for principalities, and are never satisfied because of their insatiable desires.

Why the eldest son of Ham is Chus.

81. The sacred historian has here produced a word most completely in accordance with nature, saying that Chus was the elder son of evil, Chus being the dissolved and loose nature of the earth, for the earth, when dense and fertile, and moist, is full of herbs, and hills, and trees, and is well arranged for the production of different fruits ; but when dissolved and reduced to dust and dry, it is unfruitful and barren ; and besides it is tossed about in the air, when it is raised from the ground by the wind, by its dust making the air all alive.

Such as this is the first origin and the first shoots of evil being destitute of the generation of good pursuits, and the cause of barrenness to the soul and to all its parts.

Why was Chus the father of Nimrod, who began to be a giant and a hunter before the Lord : on which account they said, " Like Niinrod the mighty hunter before the Lord ? "f

The father in this case, having a nature truly dissolute, does not at all keep fast the spiritual bond of the soul, nor of nature, nor of consistency of manners, but rather like a giant born of the earth, prefers earthly to heavenly things, and thus appears to verily the ancient fable of the giants and Titans ; for in truth he who is an emulator of earthly and corruptible things is always engaged in a conflict with heavenly and admirable natures, raising up earth as a bulwark against heaven ; and those things which are below are adverse to those which are above.

On which account there is much propriety in the expression, he was a giant against God, which thus declares the

opposition of such beings to the deity ; for a wicked man is nothing else than an enemy, contending against God : on which account it has become a proverb that every one who sins greatly ought to be referred to him as the original and chief of sinners, being spoken of " as a second Nimrod."

Therefore his very name is an indication of his character, for it is interpreted ^Ethiopian, and his art is that of hunting, both of which things are detestable : an ^-Ethiopian because unmitigated wickedness has no participation in light, but imitates night and darkness : and the practice of the huntsman is as much as possible at variance with rational nature, for he who lives among wild beasts wishes to live the life of a beast, and to be equal to the brutes in the vices of wickedness.

QUESTIONS, AND SOLUTIONS TO THOSE QUESTIONS, WHICH ARISE IN GENESIS.

BOOK III.

"What is the meaning of the expression, " I am the Lord thy God who brought thee out of the land of the Chaldaeans to give thee this land for an inheritance ? "

1. As the literal statement is plain enough, we need only consider the inner meaning, which was meant to be interpreted in this manner.

The law of the Chaldaeans taken symbolically is mathematical speculation, one part of which is recognised to be astronomy, which the Chaldaeans study with great industry and with great success. Therefore God is here honouring the wise man with a gift ; in the first place, by taking men out of the sect of the astrologers, that is to say, away from the hallucinations of the Chaldaeans, which, as they are difficult to detect and refute, are found to be the cause of great evils and wickedness, since they ascribe the attributes of the Creator to created things, and persuade men to worship and to venerate the works of the world as God.

In the second place, God honoiirs him by granting to him the wisdom which bears fruit, which he has here symboli-

cally called the earth ; but the Father of the universe shows that wisdom and virtue are invariable and immutable, since it is not consistent with his character that Grod should show to any one that which can undergo any variation or change, for that which is shown by the being who is immutable and consistent must be so too ; but that which is liable to change, as being incessantly in the habit of suffering variation, admits of no proper or divine demonstration.

"Why does he say, " Lord, by what shall I know that I shall inherit it ?"

2. He here is seeking a sign for a ratification of the promise ; but two things only are described deserving of study ; one that which is an affection of the mind, namely, the belief in God according to his literal word ; the other a being borne on with the most exceeding desire not to be left in want of some signs, by which the hearer may feel, to the conviction of his outer senses, a confirmation of the promise : and to him who has given the promise he offers worthy veneration by the appellation, " Lord."

For by this title he says, I know thee to be the Lord and prince of all things, who art also able to do all things, and there is no disability with thee. But in truth, if I have already given credence to thy promise, still I nevertheless wish to obtain speedily if not a completion of it, yet at all events some evident signs by which its consummation may be indicated ; in truth I am thy creature, and even if I were to arrive at the highest degree of excellence, I am not always able to restrain the violence of my desire, so as not, when I have seen or heard anything good, to be contented with obtaining it slowly and not immediately ; therefore I entreat that thou wilt give me some means of knowledge, by which I may comprehend those future events.

Why is it that he says, " Take for me a heifer of three years old, and a goat of three years old, and a raven of three years old, and a turtle dove and a pigeon ? " f

3. He here mentions five animals, which arc offered on the eacred altar ; for these are divided into classes of victims,

three kinds of terrestrial animals, the ox, the goat, and the sheep ; and two kinds of birds, the turtle dove and the pigeon ; for the sacred writer constantly tells us that the everlasting reverence of victims derived its origin from the patriarch, who was also the origin of the race : but instead of the expression, " Bring to me," he has very admirably used the words, "Take for me; " since there is nothing especially and peculiarly belonging to the creature, but everything is the gift of and blessing bestowed by God, who is altogether willing that when any one has received anything he should offer thanks for it with all his heart.

But he orders him to take every animal at the age of three years ; since three is a full and perfect number, consisting of a beginning, a middle, and an end ; but still we may raise the question, why of these three animals, he takes two females, the heifer, and the she-goat, and one male, the ram ; may it not be perhaps because the heifer and the shegoat are offered as an atonement for sin ; but the sheep is not, as sin arises from frailty, and the female is frail ?

This much I have thought fit to say with especial appositeness to this question ; but I am not however ignorant that all things of this kind offer a handle to those who wish to cavil, to disparage the sacred scriptures ; therefore in this instance they say that there is nothing here described and indicated but a command to sacrifice, by the division of the animals and an examination of their entrails ; and what is visible in them they affirm to be an indication of what is convenient, and of the similitude which arises from things visible.

But those men, as it appears to me, are of that class which forms a part alone from a judgment of the whole, but which on the contrary does not from a judgment of a part form the whole, which last is the better way of coming to an opinion, as being that by which both the name and the fact are altogether established.

Therefore the giving of the law, that is to say the sacred scriptures, that I may so express myself, is a sort of living unity, the whole of which one ought to examine carefully with all one's eyes, and so discern with truth, and certainty, and clearness, the universal intention of the whole of the scripture without dissecting or lacerating its harmony,

or disuniting its unity ; by any other mode everything would appear utterly inconsistent and absurd, being dissociated from all community or equity.

What then is the intention of the delivery of the law as exhibited to us ? It is scientific, and so is everything which describes scientific species ; since the offering of sacrifice and all science admits of a consistent usage, and of expressions well adapted to them, and of various opinions, by which not only the footsteps of truth are occupied, but sometimes are even darkened, as affection is by flattery ; but in such way that the very things which are genuine and established by experiment are perverted by things which are both inconsistent and unproved.

And the natures of the animals above mentioned have an intimate connection with the parts of the universe ; the ox is connected with the earth, as being an animal employed in drawing the plough and in tilling the earth ; the goat again is connected with the water (it is called in Greek and Armenian a t%, or ajx), being an animal deriving its name from driving and rushing on (from ayu or aiocu) ; since water is an impetuous thing, and the course of rivers, and the extent of the breadth of the sea, and the sea itself agitated as it is by its ebb and flow, are witnesses of the propriety of the name and of the closeness of the connection.

And the ram (aries) is connected with the air, as being a very violent and vivacious animal, on which account too the ram is more useful to mankind than any other animal as affording them raiment.

Therefore, on account of these reasons, as I think, God orders him first to take these two female animals, the cow and the she-goat ; since both these elements, earth and water, are material, and for the most part feminine. But the third Ik; will have a male, namely the ram ; becaues the air or wind has been explained as masculine ; since the natures of all things are divided into bodies or into earth and water, and female animals exist by nature. But that which exhibits a similitude to the soul is arranged under the head of air and the breath of life. And this, as I have said, is masculine. If therefore we are to call that masculine which is the moving and active cause we must call that feminine which is moved and passive.

But the whole heaven is found to be familiarly connected with flying birds such as the pigeon and turtle dove, being distributed as it is into the rotatory path of the planets and fixed stars.

Therefore he dedicates the pigeon to the planets, for that is a tame and domestic animal, as also the planets are more familiarly connected with us as being nearer to the earth, and as having sympathies with us ; but he consecrates the turtle dove to the fixed stars, for that animal is a lover of solitude, and flees from the conversation of the multitude, and from all connection of every kind. And so also the globe itself is remote, and a thing which wanders into the furthest extremities of the world.

Therefore both the species of these two birds are assimilated to the divine attributes, since as Plato, the disciple of Socrates, says it is fitting that the heaven should have a swift chariot by reason of its very swift rotatory motion, which in fact surpasses even the birds themselves in the velocity of their course. But the birds above mentioned are singers ; the prophet indicating by an enigmatical expression that perfect music which exists in heaven harmoniously adapted from the motion of the stars, since it is a proof of human art when the corresponding music of the voices of animals and of living instruments is adapted together by the industry of genius. But this heavenly music has been abundantly extended over the earth by the Creator, as he has also extended the rays of the sun, being always prompt to exercise his beneficent care for the human race.

For such music excites frenzy in the ears, and brings unrestrained pleasure to the mind ; and so causes men to forget even their meat and drink, and even when hunger brings death to the door to be willing even to die out of a desire to hear music.

And if the song of the Sirens, * as Homer tells us, invites the heavens so forcibly, that they forget while listening to

He alludes here to the description in Homer :

SEipijvac. fiiv ttqCjtov a(pi£sat, at pa re iravrag ' AvOpuJirovg OLXyovaiv o,rig a<ptag iiaa<pi.KT}rai ' Oarig aiSpiiy trtXaaij tcai (pQoyyov cucovay 'Supriviov, r<p 8' ovri yvvrj, teal vr/ina rtKva OiKaSs voarlitravri -KapiGTarai, ovdi yai>vvrai

it, their country, their houses, their friends, and necessary food ; how much more must that most perfect and consummate music, so truly heavenly and endowed with the highest degree of harmony, when it touches the organs of the ear, compel men to go mad and to yield to rapture.

'AXXa ts 'Etipfjvsg Xiyvpfj B'tXyovoiv doiSy, 'Hfiivai kv Xtipiovf TroXvg S' ap<p' oartotyiv Big

AvSpuiV TTvBofJl.kv(i)V, TTlpl Si pLVol fllVvBoVUlV.

As translated by Pope : —

" Next, where the Sirens dwell, you plough the seas ; Their song is death, and makes destruction please. Unblest the man, whom music wins to stay Nigh the curst shore, and listen to the lay ; No more that wretch shall view the joys of life, His blooming offspring, or his beauteous wife ! In verdant meads they sport, and wide around Lie human bones that whiten all the ground ; The ground polluted floats with human gore, And human carnage taints the dreadful shore."

And further on in the same book, the poet describes the effect of these songs upon Ulysses.

Aiyvpfjv 5' tvrvvov ctoiSrjv

AfDp' ay' iiov, iroXvaiv 'OSvaiv, ptyu KvSog ' A\atwv^

tiija Karciartjaov 'iva vw'irtpqv ott aicovoyg.

Oil yup 7rw Tig rySe iraprfKaat vr\i ntXaivy,

Tlp'ii' y' ypiiov fitXiyrjpvi> aizb aTOf.ia.Twv <jtt' aKOvoai

'AW oyt Ttpitydptvog viirai, ical TrXiiova tiSilig.

"lSp.iv yap toi iravB' oa' tvi Tpoiy tvpeiy

'Apytioi Tpwig tc, Qtwv iorrjTi poyi]aaV

"ISptv 6' oaoa ykvi)Tai liri x^ovi TrovXvfioTtipTj. "Qg cpdcrav, 'u~iaai ona icdXXipov, avrap ip.bv tci}p

"H0fV aKOvifiivai, Xixrai t itdXivov eraipovg,

'Otpovai vtvOTaZw oi Si TrpcnrtaovTig iptacjov.

As translated by Pope : —

" 0 stay, 0 pride of Greece ! Ulysses, stay ?

0 cease thy course and listen our to lay !

Blest is the man ordained our voice to hear,

The song instructs the soul, and charms the ear.

Approach ! thy soul shall into raptures rise !

A pproach ! and learn new wisdom from the wise !

We know whate'er the kings of mighty name

Achieved at Ilion in the field of Fame ;

Whate'er beneath the sun's bright journey lies.

0 stay and learn new wisdom from the wise !"

But the reason on account of which every one of the animals to be offered is to be three years of age has already been explained ; and we must now discuss it under another form of mystery, since it has been seen that every one of those things which were called into existence and subsequently to the moon, such as the earth, water, and air, rejoice in an order connected with the number three.

In the divisions of earth there is a vast quantity of dry continent, islands and peninsulas. Water is divided into sea, rivers, and lakes ; and the air into the two equinoxes, the vernal and the autumnal ; and they may be taken as one, for they have an equal proportion of day and night, and accordingly the equinoxes are neither hot nor cold. Add to these the changes of summer and winter, for the sun is borne through those three circles into the seasons of summer, winter, and the equinoxes. Therefore, in the first place, the natural arrangement will be of this kind ; and the rnoral arrangement is properly thus.

In every one of us there are three things flesh, the outward sense, and reason ; therefore the calf exhibits a familiarity with the corporeal substance, since our flesh is subdued by, and kept in subservience to, and in connection with the ministrations of life ; also their nature is female according to matter, being calculated rather to be passive and to be subject rather than to be active.

But the similitude of the she-goat isconnected with the communion of the outward senses, either because all the objects of those outward senses are each borne towards their appropriate sensation, or because each impulse and motion of the soul takes place in consequence of an imagination formed of the objects received through the medium of the external senses. And this is followed, in the first place, by a certain inflexion or alienation, which by some is called an occasion, that is to say, an impulse affecting each kind of sense. But since the female is the outward sense, as being passive in consequence of what is subjected to the outward senses, therefore God has adapted to it a female animal, the she-goat.

But the ram is akin to the word, or to reason. In the first place, because it is a male animal ; secondly, because it is a working animal ; and thirdly, because it is the cause of

the world, and of the firmament ; that is to say, the ram is so by means of the clothing which it supplies ; and reason, or the word, is so in the arrangement of life ; for whatever is not irregular and absurd immediately exhibits reason. And there are two species of reason ; the one derived from that nature by which the affairs of the world subjected to the outward senses are finished ; the other from that of those things which are called incorporeal species, by which the affairs of that world which is the object of the intellect are brought to their accomplishment. Therefore the pigeon and the turtle dove are found to resemble these.

The pigeon, forsooth, resembles speculation in natural philosophy ; for it is a more familiar bird, as the objects of the outward sense are exceedingly familiar to the sight : and the soul of the inquirer into natural science flies upward as if it were furnished with wings ; and being borne aloft is carried round the heaven, discerning every part of everything, and the principles of every separate thing; for the turtle dove imitates that species which is the subject of intellect and incorporeal ; for as that animal is fond of solitude, so it is superior to the violent species which come under the outward sense, associating itself as it does with the invisible species by its essence.

Why does he say, " And he took unto him all these

4. He has added also that expression, " And he took unto him," with especial propriety ; for it is the sign of a soul thoroughly imbued with the love of God to ascribe whatever good and noble theories and feelings it receives, not unto itself, but wholly to God who is the giver of all benefits.

What is the meaning of, " He divided them in the middle and laid the pieces opposite to one another ? " t

5. Also the whole structure of the body, as of flesh, is to be looked at in such a light as this according to its whole creation ; for the parts are brothers ; not as they are divided and placed opposite to one another; but, being naturally inclined to one another, and having a mutual regard to one another, on account of their natural co-operation; the original Creator who gave them life making this division for

Genesis xv. 10. t ibid.

the sake of usefulness, so that one part should be opposed to the other part, and again that both should reciprocally seek one another in all necessary ministrations.

In this way he has directly separated the sense of sight, distributing it equally to two eyes by placing the nose between them and thus turning each eye 'to the other ; for the pupils, if I may so say, lean both in one direction so aa mutually to behold the same thing, scarcely ever straying beyond the position in which they are placed, but only looking towards one another, especially when anything comes across their sight.

And in similar manner the faculty of hearing is distributed between the two ears, which are both reciprocally turned to one another, both tending to one and the same operation. And the sense of smell is divided between the two nostrils, beingturned towards the two tubesof the nostrils, which are not revolving around or inclined towards the cheeks, so as being drawn in two different directions to look the one towards the right and the other towards the left, but being both collected together and turned inwards they await all smells with a common action.

So also the hands are not made of an appearance contrary to that of one another, but being like brothers and like divisible parts, looking to one another mutually, and being prepared by nature for an operation and employment suitable to them, they thus act in the operations of receiving, giving, and working. And the feet are not constituted differently from the hands ; as each of them behaves in such a manner that they both yield the one to the other, and progress is effected by the motion of both together, so that nothing can be accomplished by one alone. Nor is it only the feet and shins, but also the legs and knee-pans, and hips, and the breasts, and in fact every part on the right or left of the body, being divided in a similar manner, indicate one general harmony and correspondence and union as it were of connatural parts ; that is to say, of all of those different members enumerated according to their separate species.

And generally, whoever considers together and in an equal manner all the above mentioned parts thus subdivided, in reference to their joint operation, will find one nature combined of the two parts. As the hands, united and connected

together with the fingers, are seen when in union with them to exhibit a harmony; and the feet, when re-united in operation, areseentotendto union; and the ears, when similarly combined in the figure of an amphitheatre, are seen to unite themselves, in effect extending across the space which separates them.

Therefore our nature, continually making in this manner a division of those parts which exist in us according to each separate species, has first of all separated and arranged the different sections, placing them as it were opposite to one another in the same way in which it has arranged the world ; and it has also arranged them with reference to the easy discharge of their several duties. And again it has combined each of these members according to each species into one action, and into the same operation, collecting together all of them when considered generally.

Nor is it only the parts of the body which any one may see thus united and in pairs, separated in their union, and again united in their division, but the parts of the soul are so too. But since the two superior sections of this are so many separate classes, namely the rational and the irrational, so also the separate parts of each section have their own appropriate division ; as for instance, the rational part is divided into the intention and into the uttered word ; and that part which exists in accordance with the outward senses is divided into the four senses ; for the fifth sense, touch, is common to the other four, two of which, those with which we see and hear, are philosophical senses, so that it is by means of them that the power of living well is acquired for us ; the others are non-philosophical, namely smell and taste, but are servile, being created only for living ; for the sense of smell, by means of its exercise, contains many things which awaken it, and receives a continual breathing which is as it were the continual food of living creatures ; therefore smell and taste support this mortal body, but sight and hearing afford service to the immortal soul.

Therefore these divisions of our members, according to our body and soul, were made and separated by the Creator ; however, we must know that the parts of the world also are arranged in two divisions and are placed opposite to one another; the earth being divided into mountainous and champaign districts ; the water into sweet and salt, sweet

being that which is supplied by springs and rivers, and salt being that which comes from the sea; as also the atmosphere is divided into summer and winter, and also into spring and autumn.

And it is on this account that Heraclitus wrote his books about nature, having borrowed his theory of contraries from our sacred historian, with the addition of an infinite number of laborious arguments.

Why is it said, " But he did not divide the birds ?"

6. He is shadowing forth a fifth and periodical nature, from which the ancients say that the heaven was made ; for the four elements are mixtures rather than elements : by which he subdivides those things which are already divided into those materials of which they were originally composed, as the earth includes within itself a portion of the elements of water, and also of air, and also of fire, which however obtains the appellation not so much in accordance with our apprehension of it, as with our sight ; and again the water is not so clear or pure, as not to have some participation in wind and earth ; and so also in each of the other elements there is a certain tempering and combination ; but the fifth substance is the only one which has been made unmixed and pure, on which account it was not accustomed to be mentioned at all.

Therefore it is well said, he did not divide the birds; since the heavenly nature, both of the planets and also of the fixed stars, is raised on high like that of birds; in the similitude of both kinds, that is to say, of clean birds, the turtle dove and the pigeon, which scarcely admit of being divided or cut up ; for the indivisible nature is of a fifth essence, more unmixed and pure than the others, and therefore it more closely resembles unity.

What is the meaning of, " And the birds descended on the bodies which were divided ?"

7. Since the three animals, the heifer, and the she-goat,

and the ram, were divided in a symbolical manner, they are

signs, a3 we have already said, of the earth, and water, and

air ; still it is necessary to give now a reason for this, ex-

amining the truth carefully under the mystery of a similitude.

Perhaps therefore he designs and intimates by the descent of the birds on the cut pieces an invasion of enemies ; for all the nature of the world beneath the moon is full of battles and ill will, both domestic and external ; and the birds in truth appear to fly down on the divided bodies for the sake of meat and drink ; naturally indeed it is the stronger which descend upon the weaker animals, as upon dead bodies, attacking them in general unexpectedly, but they do not fly down on the turtle dove and pigeon, since the heavenly bodies are free from desires and unconscious of suffering wrong.

Why is it that he says, " Abraham passed over and sat upon them ?"

8. Those who think that sacrifice is indicated by the matters about which we are at present speaking will say that the virtuous man, sitting as it were in a synagogue, has examined into the entrails of the divided animals, as if that were looked upon as an unerring symbol for the declaration of the truth ; but we, who adhere to Moses and who are thoroughly acquainted with the views of that teacher, one who, turning away his face from every sophistical appearance and prognostic, trusted in God alone, will rather say, that he has here introduced the just man who is endued with virtue with the birds themselves, who were congregated together and flying about over him, intending to denote nothing else by this parabolical presentation, but that he is desirous of hindering injustice and covetousness, and is most hostile to quarrels and wars, and a lover of consistency and peace ; for he himself is truly a guardian of peace.

Since no one state has ever rested in tranquillity owing to the conduct of the wicked, but kingdoms have become fixed steadily when one or two men endued with virtue have arisen, whose virtue has put an end to civil disturbances, God granting to those who are earnest in the pursuit of virtue good habits calculated to procure them honour ; and not to them only, but to those also who approach near to the production of general advantage.

What is the meaning of the words, " About the time of the setting of the sun a trance fell upon Abraham ; and lo, a great horror of darkness came over him ? "

9. A certain divine excess was suddenly rendered calm to the man endued with virtue ; for the trance, or ecstacy as the word itself evidently points out, is nothing else than a departure of the mind wandering beyond itself, f

But the class of prophets loves to be subject to such influences ; for when it is divining, and when the intellect is inspired with divine things, it no longer exists in itself, since it receives the divine spirit within and permits it to dwell with itself; or rather, as he himself has expressed it, a spirit falls upon him ; since it does not come slowly over him, but rushes down upon him suddenly.

Moreover, that which he has added afterwards applies admirably, that a great horror of darkness fell upon him. For all these things are ecstacies of the mind ; for he also who is in a state of alarm is not in himself ; but darkness is a hindrance to his sight ; and in proportion as the horror is greater, so also do his powers of seeing and understanding became more obscured.

And this is not said without reason : but as an indication of the evident knowledge of prophecy by which oracles and laws are given from Grod.

Why was it said to him, " Thou shait know to a certainty that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall be reduced to slavery, and shall be grievously afflicted for forty years ?"J

10. That expression is admirably used, " It was said to him," since a prophet is supposed to utter something, but yet he is not pronouncing any command of his own, but is only the interpreter of another who sends something into his mind ; and moreover whatever he does utter and deliver in words is all true and divine. And in the first place, he declares that a family of the human race is to dwell in a land belonging: to another ; for all things which are beneath the

t EKGTciGig, derived from l£ioTapai, in 2nd aor. act. tZiarrp', "I was beside myself." X Genesis xv. 13.

heaven are the possession of God, and those living creatures which exist on the earth may more properly and truly be said to be sojourners in a foreign land than to be dwelling in a country of their own which by nature they have not got.

In the second place, he thus declares to us that every mortal is a slave after his kind. But no man is found to be free, but every one has many masters who vex and afflict him both within and without ; for instance, without there are the winter which affects him with the cold, the summer which scorches him with heat, and hunger, and thirst, and many other calamities ; and within there are pleasures and concupiscences, • and sorrows, and fears. But his servitude is limited to a period of four hundred years, during which the aforesaid pleasures shall rise up against him. On which account it has been said above, that Abraham passed over and sat upon them, hindering and repelling them ; as far as the literal words go, repelling those carnivorous birds which were hovering over the divided animals, but in fact repelling the afflictions which come upon men. Since a man who is in his own proper nature a lover of, and also by diligent practice a studier of virtue, is a most humane physician of our race, and a true protector of it, and guardian of it from evil. For all these things have an allegorical reference to the soul.

For while the soul of the wise man, descending from above from the sky, comes down upon and enters a mortal and is sown in the field of the body, it is truly sojourning in a land which is not his own. Since the earthly nature of the body is wholly alien from pure intellect, and tends to subdue it and to drag it downwards into slavery, bringing every kind of affliction upon it, until the sorrow, bringing the attractive multitude of vices to judgment, condemns them ; and thus at last the soul is restored to freedom. And it is on this account that he subsequently adds the sentence, " Nevertheless the nation which they shall send I will judge : and afterwards they shall go forth with great substance ;" namely, with the same measure, and still better. Because then the mind is released from its mischievous colleague, departing out of the body and being transferred not only with freedom but also with much substance ; so as to leave nothing good or useful behind to its enemies.

Since every rational soul is productive, but he who thinks himself loaded and endued with virtue in his own counsel, is unable to preserve his fruit unto the end. For it becomes a virtuous man to attain to the objects which he has intended of his own accord, as also the counsels of wisdom correspond to those objects. Since, as some trees, although they appear productive at the first season of the budding of their fruits, are yet unable to bring them to maturity, so that the whole fruit before it becomes ripe is shaken off by every trifling cause ; in the same manner the souls of inconstant men feel many influences which contribute to their productiveness, but nevertheless are unable to keep them sound till they arrive at perfection, as a man studious of virtue ought to do in order eventually to gather them as his own possessions.

What is the meaning of, " But thou shalt go to thy fathers in peace, being nourished in a fair old age ?"

11. He here clearly indicates the incorruptibility of the soul : when it transfers itself out of the abode of the mortal body and returns as it were to the metropolis of its native country, from which it originally emigrated into the body. Since to say to a dead man, " Thou shalt go to thy fathers," what else is this but to propose to him and set before him a second existence apart from the body as far as it is proper for the soul of the wise man to dwell by itself?

But when he says this he does not mean by the fathers of Abraham his father, and his grandfather, and his great-grandfathers after the flesh, for they were not all deserving of praise so as to be by any possibflity any honour to him who arrived at the succession of the same order, but he appears by this expression to be assigning to him for his fathers, according to the opinion of many commentators, all the elements into which the mortal man when deceased is resolved.

But to me he appears to intend to indicate the incorporeal substances and inhabiters of the divine world, whom in other passages he is accustomed to call angels. Moreover the words which follow are not by any means without an object, that he is nourished in peace and in a fair old age. Eor the wicked and depraved man is nourished in battle, and lives

and departs in a very bad old age. But the good man, in both phases of existence, both in that which is in connection with the body and in that which is apart from the body, cultivates peace, and is alone completely virtuous, such as no foolish person is found to be, even though he should live longer than an elephant ; on which account he here carefully said, " Thou shalt go to thy fathers, being nourished — not in an advanced old age, but — in a fair old age." For many foolish persons also have their lives extended to a greatly lengthened period, but it is only the man who is desirous of virtue who enjoys a good old age and one endued with virtue.

Why is it that he says, " And in the fourth generation they shall return again hither ?"

12. The number four is more fit than any other number, for this reason, that as it is more perfect, and is the root and foundation of the perfect number ten ; and it is according to the principle of the number four that all collected are to return hither, as he himself has said. But as he by himself is perfect, so also those of whom he is the father are evidently perfect.

But what is it that I am saying ? In the generation of animals the sowing of the seed has the first place ; in the second place, comes the fact of each instrument being, in some manner, impressed by something akin to nature ; thirdly, there is the growth after the first formation of the creature ; fourthly, after everything else comes the perfection, that is to say, the birth. And the same principle and order prevail in plants ; the seed is cast into the earth, then it pushes its way both upwards and downwards, partly in roots and partly in branches ; after that it increases ; and fourthly, it produces fruit ; and in the same manner again the trees, when made, first of all produce fruit, which subsequently grows ; then, as it becomes ripe, it changes colour ; and, fourthly, and this is the last operation, it completes and perfects its work, the consequence of which is the use and enjoyment of it by men.

What is the meaning of, " For the sins of the Amorites were not as yet completed ?"f

13. Some persons have said, that by this expression of the principle of Moses fate is expressly introduced, as if, in truth, everything was to be accomplished according to some particular hour and appointed period of time.

"What is the meaning of, " And when the sun was in the west a flame arose ?"

14. It means either that the sun himself appeared in the west in the similitude of a flame, or that some other flame appeared at eventide, not lightning, but some fire like it, which descended from above. The manifest interpretation of the oracle is this ; but we must now discuss that which regards the inner sense.

What is the meaning of the expression, " Behold there was a smoking furnace and torches of fires, which passed through the middle of those divisions ?"f

15. The literal meaning of the statement is plain, for the fountain or root of the divine word will have the victims consumed, not by that fire which is given for our use, but by that which descends from above, out of heaven, in order that the purity of the essence of heaven may bear witness to the sanctity of the victims.

But if we regard the inward meaning of the words, all things which are done beneath the moon are here compared to a smoking furnace, on account of the vapour which rises up out of the earth and water. As also the divisions of nature are, as has been already shown, every portion of the world being divided into two parts ; and by these there are kindled, as it were, torches of fire, being powers which are more rapid in motion and more efficacious, being burnin^, in truth, like divine fiery discourses, at onetime keeping the whole universe in a state of integrity reciprocally with themselves, and at another cleansing away the superfluous darkness.

But the following interpretation may also be given with propriety in a more familiar manner. Human life is like unto a smoking furnace, because it has not a pure fire and an unalloyed brilliancy, but a great deal of smoke, smoking darkly through the flame, which causes mist and darkness,

and an obscuration, not of the body but of the soul, so that this last cannot discern things clearly, until God the redeemer commands the heavenly lamps to arise, I mean those more pure and more holy radiations which unite those parts previously divided in two, on the right hand and on the left, and, at the same time, illuminate them, being the causes of harmony and of lucid clearness.

Why did he say, " On that day, God made a covenant with Abraham, saying, To thy seed will I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river Euphrates ?"

16. The literal expression describes the boundaries of the space which lies in the middle, between the two rivers Egyptus and Euphrates, for anciently the river was also called by the same name as the district, Egypt, as the poet also testifies when he says —

" And in the river Egypt did I fix My double-oared ships." +

But if we look to the inner meaning of the expression, it intimates happiness, which is the perfect fulness of three good things, namely, of spiritual, and corporeal, and external blessings, as some of those men describe it in their panegyrics, who were afterwards called philosophers, such as Aristotle and the Peripatetics ; nevertheless, such a giving of the law as this is called Pythagorean.

Therefore the Egypt is a symbol of corporeal and external blessings, and the Euphrates of spiritual advantages, in which alone, it is plain, their real joy consists, which has wisdom and all the other virtues for its foundation ; and the boundaries of this happiness are very rightly described as beginning with the Egyptus and ending with the Euphrates ; for the things affecting the soul come at the end, which we usually approach with difficulty after we have passed through corporeal and external things, in such a manner that, by this progress, we have felt our unity, the integrity of our outward senses, and the beauty and strength which existed in our youth, advance, increase, and come to maturity. And

+ The line is in Odyssey xiv. 253.

Srrjcra S" tv Aiyinry noTa^iy vtag dft(pit\haar.

in a similar manner, those things which relate to acquiring gain and to trafficking, as the management of ships, and agriculture, and commerce ; for it is well said, that all things, especially those above-mentioned, become a young man.

Who are the Kenites, the Kenezites, and the Kadinonites, and the Hittites, and the Perizzites, and the Rephaims, and the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites ?

17. Ten nations of wickedness are here enumerated, which he here destroys because of their neighbourhood, since the number ten, when false and improperly stamped, is very near to that which is good and an object of affection ; but the complete perfection of the number ten is exceedingly fit, as being the measure of infinite numbers, since the world is arranged in accordance with it, and so likewise is the mind of the wise man, the substance of which, nevertheless, wickedness perverts and overthrows, despising all very necessary powers, so that that alone remains which the sacred writer has said, namely, that the pursuit of virtue is a blessing, for the wicked man is such that he embraces vague opinions rather than truth, and of such is Ishmael, though the seed of the prophets.

Why it was that Sarah, the wife of Abraham, bore him no children ?f

18. The mother of opinion is here spoken of as barren. In the first place in order that the son of generation might appear more wonderful, as being born by a miracle. In the second place in order that his conception and nativity might appear to be owing not more to the marriage of the man than to divine providence. Tor it is not owing to the faculty of conception that a barren woman should bear a son, but rather to the operation of divine power. This is the literal meaning of the statement.

But if we look to its inward sense, then we shall say, in

the first place, that to bring forth is peculiar to the female

sex, as to beget is the office of the male : therefore God

wills in the first place to render the mind, which is filled

with virtue, like to the male sex rather than to the female, thinking it suited to its character to be active, not passive. In the second place both do generate, both the virtuous mind and the wicked oue : but they generate in a different manner, and they produce contrary offspring, the virtuous mind producing good and useful things, but the depraved or wicked mind producing base and useless things.

In the third place he who is still advancing and making progress is to be incited to the summit itself, and is near to the light which by some persons is said to be delivered to oblivion, and to be made unknown. He therefore, as he is making progress, does not generate bad things, nor yet good things, because he is not yet perfect ; but he resembles that man who is neither sick nor yet thoroughly well, but who, after a long sickness, is at last proceeding to convalescence.

What is the meaning of the statement, she had an Egyptian handmaid whose name was Hagar ?

19. Hagar is interpreted travelling, and she is the servant of a more perfect nature, being by nature an Egyptian less naturally ; for the study of encyclical learning loves an abundance of knowledge, and abundant knowledge is, as it were, the handmaid of virtue, since the whole course and connection of sciences and arts is subservient to his use who is able to profit by their acquisition so as to attain to virtue, for virtue has the soul for its abode ; but the course of arts and sciences stands in need of bodily instruments.

But the body is symbolically Egypt ; therefore the sacred writer here properly asserts the likeness of encyclical knowledge to Egypt. Nevertheless he has also given it a name by reason of its travelling abroad, since sophistry is a foreign thing, unconnected with the acquisition of that wisdom which alone is native, and which alone is necessary, which is the mistress of intermediate wisdom, and which conducts itself in a beautiful course through the guidance of encyclical studies.

Why did Sarah say to Abraham, Behold the Lord has

shut me up so that I shall not bring forth : go in now unto my handmaid so as to beget a son by her?

20. In the actual letter of this statement it is the same thing to feel no envy, and also to provide for the welfare of the wise man who is her husband and her genuine brother ; so that she, wishing to find a remedy for her own barrenness by means of her handmaid of whom she was mistress, gives her as a concubine to her husband. But there is a still greater abundance of her affection towards her husband indicated by this ; for as she herself was accounted barren, she did not think it reasonable that the family of her husband should be left entirely without offspring, but preferred his advantage to her own dignity. This is what is indicated by this statement taken literally.

But if we look to the inner sense of the passage it bears such an interpretation as this : it becomes those persons who are unable in respect of their virtue to bring forth beautiful works deserving of praise, to apply themselves to the intermediate kind of study, and, if I may so express myself, to procure themselves children from the encyclical branches of knowledge ; for an abundance of knowledge is as it were the whetstone of the mind and of the intellect.

And it is with great propriety that she says, The Lord has shut me up ; for that which is shut up is generally opened again at a seasonable time. Therefore she was not destitute of hope, nor was her wisdom fixed in the belief that she should be for ever without offspring, but she knew that some day or other she should bring forth. Nevertheless she will not bring forth at present, but when the soul displays the purity of its perfection. But inasmuch as it is at present imperfect it is satisfied with using a milder kind of learning, such as is attainable by encyclical studies. On which account it is not without a purpose that in the sacred contests at Olympia also, those who are unable to attain to the first prize of victory are contented to be thought worthy of the second ; for there is offered to the competitors a first, and a second, and a third prize by the presidents of the games, who are representatives of nature.

So now to her the sacred writer attributes the first prize of virtues, and the second prize of encyclical study.

Why has he called Abraham's wife Sarah, for he says, Sarah the wife of Abraham, taking her handmaid Hagar the Egyptian, gave her into his hand ?

21. The sacred writer here sums up with his approbation the marriage of the good on account of those who are incontinent and lascivious ; for those persons despise their wise wives for the sake of concubines, whom they love with a frantic passion : on which account he here introduces the man endued with virtue, the constant husband of one wife, at that time in which it was lawful for him to make use of her handmaid ; and his wife in fact indicates that he is wise, that is to say temperate, when he enters into the bed of another woman, since his connection with his concubine was only a connection of the body for the sake of propagating children ; but his union with his wife was that of two souls joined together in harmony by heavenly affection. This is the literal effect of the statement.

But if we look to the inner meaning of it, then he who has truly entrusted all his secret wishes to wisdom, and justice, and the other virtues, when once he has received the counsel of wisdom, and has tasted the joys of a matrimonial connection with it, remains constant to it as the partner and companion of his life ; although encyclical education would lead him in a beautiful course, since when the man eminent in virtue has become master of the sciences of geometry, and arithmetic, and grammar, and rhetoric, and the other exercises of the mind, he is not the less on that account mindful of the pursuit of honesty, but is borne on towards the one as to a necessary aim, to the other as an accessory.

But it is altogether fair that that fact also should meet with our approbation, — the fact I mean of his calling his handmaid also by the name of wife, because he went up to her bed out of complacency to and at the exhortation of his real wife, and not of his own genuine inclination ; on which account he no longer calls her his handmaid, that even if it

Genesis svi. 2.

were not wholly deserved still his handmaid having been given to him to wife might at least obtain the same title.

But those who study allegory may be allowed to say that the exercise of the middle discipline also stands in the place of a concubine, having nevertheless the shape and ornaments of a wife, for all encyclical learning re-produces in itself and imitates genuine virtue.

"What is the meaning of, " When she saw that she had conceived her mistress was despised before her ?"

22. The sacred writer now carefully calls Sarah the mistress when it might else have been thought that her dignity was diminished, and that she was surpassed by her handmaid, that she, that is, who had no children, was surpassed by her who was gifted with offspring.

But this kind of language is extended to nearly all the necessary affairs of human life : for a poor man who is wise is more approved of and is superior in authority to a rich man who is destitute of wisdom and reputation, or than a boasting man ; and even a sick man who is wise is better than a foolish man who is well ; for whatever is united with wisdom is genuine, and is endued with an authority of its own, but whatever is combined with folly is found to be slavish and inconstant.

But it has been excellently said not that she despised her mistress, but that her mistress was despised ; for the one statement would imply an accusation of the person, but the other contains only a declaration of an event. The scripture forsooth does not intend here to impute blame to any one while praising another, but only to hand down in an intelligible manner the pure truth of the facts.

This is what is indicated by the literal statement. But if we seek the inner meaning of the words, whoever honours and embraces rank before genius and wisdom, and whoever esteems and considers the external senses of more importance than prudence and counsel, is departing from the real character of things, thinking that they have brought forth much offspring, and that having produced a great generation of visible things they are great and perfect goods, and in a singular degree noble, but that barrenness

Genesris xvi. 4.

in this respect is evil, and deserving of disapprobation, because they do not see that invisible seed* and that offspring which is appreciable only by the intellect, which the mind is accustomed to generate in itself and by itself.

Why does Sarah as it wei'e repent of what she has done, saying to Abraham, I am receiving injury from you : I gave my handmaid into your bosom, and now, because she sees that she has conceived, I am despised before her ?

23. This language indicates her anxiety and hesitation ; displaying them first in the expression, " since," that is to say from the time that I gave my handmaiden, and in the second place it betokens a regard to the person of whom complaint is made, for she says, " I am receiving injury from you," a statement which in fact is a reproof, since she thinks that her husband ought always to be preserved without any stain, or any liability to blame, always virtuous and true, and in no respect forgetful of her, for she always introduces him, honouring him with all possible veneration, and calling him lord.

Nevertheless, the first fact stated by her is true ; for from the time that she gave her handmaiden to him to be his concubine, she herself was looked upon as despised. This is the literal meaning of her words.

But if we look to their inner sense, when any one bestows on another the handmaid of wisdom, she being influenced by the counsels of sophistry, will, because she is ignorant of propriety, despise her mistress ; for as she herself possesses encyclical knowledge, and is delighted with its brilliancy, .where every one of the separate branches of education is by itself very attractive to the soul, as if it po?sesses the power of drawing it by force to itself, then she, the handmaiden, can no longer agree with her mistress, that is to say, with the image of wisdom and its glorious and admirable beauty, until that acute judge of all things, the word of God, coming in, separates and distinguishes what is probable from what is true, and the middle from the extremities, and what is second from what is placed in the first rank. On which account Sarah says, at the end of her remonstrance, "Let God judge between me and thee."

Genesis svi. 5.

Why does Abraham say, " Behold thy handmaid is in thy hand, do unto her what seems good to thee ?"

24. The literal expression used by the wise man contains a panegyric ; for he does not call the woman who had conceived by himself, his wife, or his concubine, but the handmaiden of his wife. But since he saw that she also was a mother, he did not indulge in anger and embitter the feelings of her mind, but rather tranquillised her, and made her prudent.

But the passage contains an allegory in the expression, " In thy hand :" as if, if I may so say, sophistry lives under the dominion of wisdom, which indeed does spring forth from the same fountain, but only in one part, and not directly ; nor does it preserve the whole of its emanations pure, but draws up with its waters many fetid things, and many others of a similar character. Since, therefore, it is in thy hand and in thy power (for to whomsoever wisdom belongs, he is possessed also of all the branches of encyclical learning), do with it whatsoever pleases thee, for I am quite persuaded that you will judge with not more severity than justice ; because that very thing is especially agreeable to you : I mean the distributing to every one according to his deserts, and giving to no one more than is just, either in the way of honouring or despising him.

Why does he say, Sarah afflicted her ? f

25. The literal meaning of the words is plain : but if we look to the inner sense of them, they contain a principle of this kind. It is not every affliction that is injurious, but there are even some occasions when they are salutary ; and this is experienced by sick men at the hands of physicians, and by boys under their tutors, and by foolish people from those who correct them so as to bring them to wisdom. And this I can by no means consent to call affliction, but rather the salvation and benefit of both soul and body.

Now a part of such benefit wisdom affords to the circle of encyclical knowledge ; rightly admonishing the soul which is devoted to an abundance of discipline, and which is pregnant with sophism, not to rebel as if it had acquired

• Genesis xvi. 6. t rbiiL

some great and excellent good, but to acquiesce and venerate that superior and more excellent nature as its genuine mistress, in whose power is constancy itself, and authority over all things.

Why did Hagar flee from her face ?

26. It is not every soul which is capable of proper respect and of submitting to salutary discipline, but the mind which is gentle, and good-tempered, and consistent loves reproof, and becomes more and more attached to those who correct it. But the stubborn soul becomes malignant and hates them, and turns from them, and flees away from them, preferring those discourses which are agreeable rather than those which tend to his advantage, and looking upon them as more excellent.

What is the meaning of the statement, " The angel of the Lord found her sitting by a fountain of water in the desert in the way to Sur ? "t

27. All these statements are as it were symbols by which the sacred writer indicates that the well-instructed soul, which is the possession of virtue, is nevertheless not yet able to discern the beauty of her mistress. They are, I say, symbols ; I mean the statements that she was found, and that she was found by an angel in the desert, and in no other way than that leading to Sur. However we must begin with what is plain.

Now the too subtle sophist and the real lover of disputations is commonly unable to be detected by reason of his artifices and sophistical persuasions, with which he is accustomed to deceive and perplex men. But he who, being free from bad habits, has only an eager desire for obtaining instruction by the course of encyclical training, although he is difficult to be detected, is yet not altogether incapable of being so ; for perdition is near at hand to him who cannot be detected, but safety to him who can be discovered, especially when he is sought for and found by a more holy and more excellent spirit. And who is more holy and more excellent than the angel of the Lord ? For it is to him that it has been, entrusted to seek out the erring soul, the

Genesis xvi. 6. t Genesis xvi. 7.

soul which, on account of its presumed erudition, is continually ignorant of her whom it ought to respect, but still she could be susceptible of correction and amendment ; for which object she was sought out. Nor was she found imperfect, but ready to the hand, since the soul was found which had fled from perfect virtue, not being able to submit to discipline.

But the third symbol takes place after she is found and after the discovery has been made by an angel, namely, in the fact of her being found by a fountain, that is to say, by nature ; for it is nature which bestows on clever people abilities in proportion to the industry of each individual, effacing unseasonable learning, which is no learning at all : and praise is implied in the very place in which the soul is found, which is thirsting after genius and after its placid law, wishing to draw water while in the society of those who drink wine ; for thus it associates with those who feed upon and are delighted with the exercise of proper training, where nature itself affords sufficient nourishment, namely, education and instruction as if from a fountain.

The fourth symbol is contained in the fact that the discovery took place in the desert ; since difficulty coming over each of the outward senses, together with an influx of each separate desire, represses the mind, and does not permit it to drink pure water : but when it cannot avoid these things as in the desert, it acquiesces, and, abandoning the thoughts which agitated and perplexed it, it becomes convalescent, so as to receive a hope not only of life, but even of eternal life.

The fifth symbol is contained in the fact that she was found in the way; for dispositions which ar3 incorrigible are led by devious paths ; but that one which can be changed for the better, lo ! it proceeds along the road wiiich leads to virtue, and that road is like a fortified wall an 1 guardian to the souls which are capable of being saved, for Sur means a fortified wall.

Do you not see, then, that the whole is a symbolical, or indeed a legitimate, figure of an improving soul F And, in fact, the soul which is improving does not perish as one which is wholly foolish does ; for if the divine word be found by it, then again it seeks it ; and he who is not pure

and clean in his habits and disposition, flees from the divine word ; but yet he has a fountain of water in which he washes away his vices and wickednesses, drawing from thence the fertility of the law.

Besides this, it loves the desert, to which it has fled from its vices and wickednesses, and when it has once beheld the way of virtue it returns from the devious paths of wickedness. And all these things are fortified walls and bulwarks to it, so as to protect it from being ever injured by any words or circumstances which attack it, and from suffering any damage.

"Why did the angel say to her, " Hagar, the handmaid of Sarah, whence comest thou, and whither goest thou ?"

28. The plain letter of the question requires no explanation, for it is exceedingly clear ; but with reference to the inner meaning contained in it, there is some asperity expressed ; since the divine word is full of instruction, and is a physician of the infirmity of the soul. Therefore the angel says to her, ""Whence comest thou?" knowest thou not what good thou hast abandoned ? Art thou not altogether lame and blind ? For thou dr-st not see at all ; and though endowed with the outward senses, dost not feel, and dost not appear to me to have any portion whatever of intellect, as if thou wert quite senseless.

But " whither goest thou ?" Prom what excellence to what misery ? Why have you so erred as to cast away the blessings which you had in your power, and to pursue good things which are more remote r

Do not, do not, I say, act thus ; but, quitting your insane impetuosity, go back again, and return into the same way as before, looking upon wisdom as thy mistress, her whom you had before as your governess and directress in all the things which you did.

What is the meaning of the answer, " I am fleeing from the face of Sarah, my mistress ? " f

20. It is reasonable to praise a sincere disposition, and to think it friendly to truth. And moreover it is reasonable now to admit the veracity of a mind which confesses what it * Genesis xvi. 8. t Ibid.

has suffered; for she says, "I am fleeing from the face," that is to say, I have recoiled at the outward appearance of wisdom and virtue ; since, beholding its royal and imperial presence, she trembled, not being able to endure to look upon its majesty and sublimity, but rather thinking it an object of avoidance ; for there are some people who do not turn from virtue from any hatred of it, but from a reverential modesty, looking upon themselves as unworthy to live with such a mistress.

"Why did the angel say to her, " Return to thy mistress and be humbled beneath her hands ? "

30. As the letter is plain, we must rather investigate its inner meaning. The word of God corrects thatsoul which is able to be lured, and instructs it, and converts it, leading it to wisdom as its mistress, that it may not, through being abandoned by its mistress, rush at once into absurd folly. But it warns it, not only to return to virtue, but also to be humbled beneath its hands, that is to say, beneath its several excellencies.

But there are two kinds of humiliation ; one, in accordance with defect, which arises from spiritual infirmity, which it is easy to overcome, seize upon, and reprove. But there is another kind which the word of the Lord enjoins, proceeding from reverence and modesty ; such as that humility which children exhibit to their fathers, pupils to their masters, and young men to the aged ; since it is very advantageous to be obedient, and to be subject to those who are better than one's self; for he who has learnt to be under authority is in a moment imbued with" a power which he alone may exercise ; for, although any one were to be clothed with the authority of all the earth and sea, yet he would not be able to possess the royal supremacy of virtue, unless he had first been instructed and taught to obey.

"Why did the angel say to her, " I will multiply thy seed, and it shall not be numbered for multitude ? " f

It is the honour of the docile mind not to be presumptuous or rebellious on account of its progress in knowledge, or because of the very useful seed which it has

Genesis xvi. 8. t Genesis xvi. 9.

QUESTIONS AND S0LUTI0N3. 435

received from various kinds of erudition ; for it does not any more, as word-catchers and cavillers do, employ all the arguments of encyclical learning to establish any whimsical object, but to prove the truth which is contained in them. And when it has begun to prosecute that by diligent investigation, it is then rendered worthy to behold the sight of its mistress, free from all acceptance of persons, and from all reproof.

What is the meaning of the statement, " The angel said to her, Behold, thou hast conceived, and thou shalt bring forth a son, and shalt call his name Ishmael, because the Lord has heard the voice of thy affliction ? "

32. The literal sense of the words admits of no question except this allegorical explanation. Erudition, which is acquired and trained by the dispensation of virtue as a mistress, is found not to be barren, but it has conceived the seed of wisdom ; and when it has conceived it brings forth ; but it brings forth a work which is not perfect but imperfect, like an infant which has need of care, and aliment, and nourishment ; for in truth, it is quite plain that the offspring of a perfect soul is perfect, that is to say, its words and works ; but that of the soul of the second class, which is still lying in servitude and subordination, is more imperfect. On which account it had a certain name given to it, Ishmael, which is interpreted "the hearing of God." But hearing is honoured with the second dignity among the outward senses, being next to sight ; for nature has arranged a succession of ranks in the contests of the senses, giving the first place to the eyes, the second to the ears, the third to the nostrils, and the fourth to that sense by which we taste.

What is the meaning of the statement, " He shall be a wild man ; his hand shall be upon every one, and every one's hand shall be upon him, and he shall dwell over against all his brethren ? " f

33. If we look to the letter of the statement, up to this time Ishmael has not any brothers, for he was the first child of his parents. But the sacred writer is here figuring

43o PHILO JUDjEUS.

a certain nature, too secret to be thoroughly investigated ; for he has set forth the figure of his future character. And such a figure evidently represents the sophist whose mother is erudition or wisdom. But the sophist himself is a man of wild opinions ; since the wise man as being civilized is fitted for living in cities, and for urbanity, or for statesmanlike and political companionship ; but he who is wild and a man of wild opinions is immediately also quarrelsome.

And it is on this account that the sacred writer makes an addition, saying, " His hand shall be upon every one, and every one's hand shall be upon him;" for the abundance of science and the use of erudition is able to contradict all men. As those men of the present day who are called academicians and inquirers, consistently setting no bounds to the determinations of their will and resolution, and among the different opinions which they investigate preferring neither this nor that one, admit those men to be philosophers who attack the opinions of every sect; and those whom it has been usual to call opposersof will, as if they called them kXr^ayjn or 6e7^/j,d,,aayoi, because they in the first place raise contentions and declare themselves the champions of their national sect, not to be convinced or put down by those who oppose them. But they are all kinsmen, and as it were brothers of the same womb, being the offspring of one mother, namely, of philosophy.

And it is on this account that he says, "And he shall dwell over against all his brethren;" for in good truth the academician and the inquirer are diametrically opposed to sects, finding fault in each of them with their certain limitation of the resolution.

"Why does he say, " But Hagar called on the name of the Lord, who spoke to her, saying, ' Thou God who hast had regard unto me.' Because he said, ' In truth I have beheld thee appearing before me.' "

34. In the first place, take notice carefully that the angel, after the manner of the handmaiden of wisdom, was a minister to her on the part of God. But still why is he here called Lord or God who ought only to have been styled his angel ? It was in order to adapt the fact to the proper

person ; for it was right that the Lord and chief of all the universe should appear to wisdom as Grod, and that his word should appear as a minister to the handmaid and servant of wisdom.

But we may not suppose that she mistakenly looked upon the angel as God ; for those who are unable to behold the first cause may easily be deceived and look upon the second as the first ; in the same manner as he who has but weak sight, not being able to behold the sun which is in heaven in its real appearance, thinks that the ray which falls upon the earth is the sun itself; and those who have never seen the king attribute frequently the dignity of the supreme sovereign to his ministers.

And in truth mild and rustic men who never have beheld a city, not even from the summits of the hills where they live, think every country house or farm-yard a mighty city, and look upon the people who dwell there as citizens of a great city, out of ignorance of what a city really is.

"What is the meaning of, " On this account she called that well the well of him whom I have seen face to face ? "

35. The well has both a spring and depth. But the learning of the students of encyclical science is neither all on the surface, nor is it destitute of first principles ; for it has for its source corrective discipline. Therefore it is with perfect correctness that she says that the angel appeared before the well as God ; since the erudition of the encyclical training possessing the second rank is supposed to rejoice in the first authority, though it is in reality separated from that first wisdom which it is permitted to wise men to behold, but not to sophists.

"Why is the well said to have been between Cadesh and Pharan ? t

36. Cadesh is interpreted holy, but Pharan is translated hail, or corn.

"What is the meaning of the statement, " Ilagar brought forth a son to Abraham ? " J

37. It i3 made in perfect accordance with nature ; for no

habit of possession brings forth for itself, but for him who possesses it; as grammar does for the grammarian, and music for the musician, and mathematical science for the mathematician ; because it is a part of him, and stands in need of him. And the habit is not received as a thing in need of something, just as fire has no need of heat, for it is heat to itself; and it gives a portion of the participation in it to those who approach it.

"Why is Abraham said to have been eighty and six years old when Hagar bore Ishmael to him ?

38. Because the number which follows eighty, that is to say six, is the first perfect number, being equal to its parts, and being the first number which is composed of the multiplication of an odd and an even number; receiving also something from its efficient cause according to the odd or redundant number, and from its material and effective cause according to the even number. On which account, among the most ancient of our ancestors, some persons have called it matrimony, and others harmony; and our sacred historian too has divided the creation of the world into six days.

But among numbers, eighty rejoices in perfect harmony, since it is composed of two generous diameters in a double and treble proportion, according to the figure of a square of four sides. And it contains within itself all the four inferences ; the arithmetical, and the geometrical, and the harmonious one.

Being in the first place composed of double numbers, as of six, eight, nine, twelve, the union of which makes thirtyfive ; in the second place of triple numbers, six, nine, twelve, eighteen, the sum of which amounts to forty-five. And from these two numbers thirty-five and forty-five, the whole number eighty is completed.

_ Again, when the sacred historian Mose3 himself began by divine inspiration to utter the oracular precepts which he was commissioned to deliver, he was eighty years old. And the first man who existed of our nation according to the law of circumcision, being circumcised on the eighth day, being eminent for virtue, bears that name of joy, being called Isaac

in the Chaidaic tongue, and Isaac means laughter; being naturally called so because nature rejoices or laughs at everything, being never vexed at any thing which is done in the world, but rather looking with complacency on every thing which occurs as being done well and profitably.

"Why when he was ninety and nine years old does the sacred writer say, " The Lord God appeared to him and said, I am the Lord thy God?"

89. He here makes use of both the titles of each superior virtue, applying them in the case of his address to the wisman, because it was by them that all things were created, and by them that the world is regulated after it had been created. By one of them therefore the wise man, just in the same manner as the world itself, was fashioned and made according to the likeness of God ; and God is the name of creative virtue ; and by the other of them that he was made according to the Lord, as falling under his authority and supreme power.

Therefore he designs here to show that the man who is conspicuous in virtue is both a citizen of the world, and also equal in dignity to the whole world, declaring that both the virtues of the world, the divine and the royal attributes, are in a singular manner appointed to and set over him as protectors. And it was with great correctness and propriety that this appearance took place when he was about ninety and nine years old, because that number is very near the hundred. And the number a hundred is composed of the number ten multiplied by itself, which the sacred historian calls the holy of holies.

Since the first court, the first ten, is simply called holy, and that is permitted to be entered by the sweepers of the temple ; but the ten of tens, which he again enjoins the sweepers of the temple to pay above all things to the existing high priest, is the number ten computed along with the number a hundred, for what else is the tenth of the tenths but the hundredth ?

However the number ninety and nine has been set forth and adorned not only by its affinity to the number a hundred, but it has also received a particular participation in a wonder-

ful nature, since it consists of the number fifty, and of seven times seven. For the fiftieth year, as the year of Pentecost or the Jubilee, is called remission in the giving forth of the law, as then all things are given their liberty, whether living or inanimate.

And the mystery of the seventh year is one of quiet and profound peace to both body and soul. For the seventh is the recollection of all the good things which come of their own accord without industry or labour, which at the first creation of the world nature produced of herself; but the number forty -nine, consisting as it does of seven times seven, indicates no trifling blessings, but rather those which have virtue and wisdom, in such a degree as to contribute to invincible and mighty constancy.

"What is the meaning of, " Do thou please me, and keep thyself from stain, and I will make my treaty between me and •thee, and I will multiply thee exceedingly ?

40. God here lays down a law for the human race in a somewhat familiar manner ; for he who has no participation in wickedness and is free from evil, will be perfectly good, which is peculiar to incorporeal natures. But those who are in the body are called good in proportion to the measure in which wickedness and the practice of sin are removed from them. Therefore the life of those men has appeared honourable, not that of those who have been free, from sickness from the beginning to the end, but that of those who from a state of infirmity have advanced to sanity ; on which account he says directly and plainly, " Keep thyself free from stain," for it is sufficient to conduct a mortal nature to felicity not to be blamed, and neither to do nor say anything deserving of reproof; and such conduct is at once pleasing to the Father.

Therefore it is that he said, " Do thou please me, and keep thyself free from stain." Where the form of expression implies a mutual conversion ; since the habits which please God do not deserve reproof, and he who keeps himself free from stain and avoids reproof in all things is altogether pleasing to God. Therefore he promises to bestow a double blessing on him who keeps himself free from all reproof; in the first place, to make him the guardian of the deposits of

the divine covenant : and in the second place to cause him to increase to a multitude without any limit.

For that expression, " I will make my treaty, or covenant, between me and thee," shows the office of guardianship of the truth which is entrusted to an honest man ; for the whole treaty of God is the incorporeal word ; which is the form and measure of the universe according to which this world was made. And then repeating the expression, " I will multiply thee exceedingly," twice manifestly shows the immense numbers to which the multitude promised shall grow, I mean the increase which shall take place in the people, not in human virtue.

"What is the meaning of, " Abraham fell on his face ?"

41. The present expression is the interpretation of what has already been promised ; for God had said, " Keep thyself free from stain," but there is no other cause of a man leading a life which is disapproved but the outward sense, because that is the origin and source of the passions ; on which account he rightly and properly falls on his face, that is to say, the offences caused by the outward senses fall to the bottom, showing that the man is now devoted to all good works.

This is enough to say in the first place. But in the second place we must say that he was so struck by the manifest appearance of the living God that he was scarcely able to behold him through fear, but fell to the ground and offered adoration, being overwhelmed wdth awe at the appearance which presented itself to him.

In the third place, he fell to the ground on account of the revelation thus made to him, at the form of his appearance by the living God who exists alone, whom he knew and regarded as truth opposed to created nature ; since the one exists in unvarying constancy and the other vacillates and falls into its proper place, that is to say, to the earth.

What is the meaning of, " And God conversed with him, saying, And I, behold, my covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be the father of a multitude of nations ?"f

42. Since he had previously used the expression, " treaty,"

he now proceeds to say, do not seek that treaty in letters, since I myself, in accordance with what has been said before, am myself the genuine and true covenant.

For after he has shown himself and said, " I," he makes an addition, saying, "Behold, my covenant," which is nothing but I myself ; for I am myself my covenant, according to which my treaty and agreement are made and agreed to, and according to which again all things are properly distributed and arranged. Now the form of this prototypal treaty is put together from the ideas and incorporeal measures and forms in accordance with which this world was made. Is it not therefore a climax to the benefits which the Father bestowed on the wise man, to raise him up and conduct him not only from earth to heaven, nor only from heaven to the incorporeal world appreciable only by the intellect, but also to draw him up from this world to himself, showing himself to him, not as he is in himself, for that is not possible but as far as the visual organs of the beholder who beholds virtue herself as appreciable by the intellect are able to attain to.

And it is on this account that he says, " Be no more a son but a father ; and the father, not of one individual but of a multitude ; and of a multitude, not according to a part, but of all nations ; therefore of the revealed promises two admit of a literal interpretation, but the third of one which is rather spiritual. One of those which admit of a literal interpretation is to be construed in this way : in truth thou shalt be the father of nations, and shalt beget nations, that is to say, each individual among thy sons shall be the founder of a nation.

But the second is of this kind ; like a father you shall be clothed with power over, and authority to rule, man}- nations ; for a lover of Grod is necessarily and at once also a iover of men ; so that he will diligently devote his attention, not only to his relations but also to all mankind, and especially to those who are able to go through the discipline of strict attention, and who are of a disposition the reverse of anything cruel or hard, but of one which easily submits to virtue, and willingly gives obedience to right reason.

But the third we may explain under this allegory : the multitude of nations spoken of indicates as it were the multifarious inclination of the will in each of our minds,

both those inclinations which it is accustomed to form with reference to itself, and also those others which it admits by the agency of the senses, as they enter clandestinely through the intervention of the imagination, and if the mind possesses the supreme authority over all these, it, like a common father, turns them to better objects, cherishing their infant opinions, as it were, with milk, exhorting those which are older and more mature, though still imperfect, to improvement, and honouring with commendation those which perform their duty aright ; and again, putting a bridle, by means of discipline and reproof, on those which rebel and act rashly ; since, wishing to imitate the Deity, it receives a twofold influx from the virtues of that same being, one from his beneficent attributes and another from his avenging might, as if from two sources ; therefore the docile receive his kindness, and towards the rebellious he uses reproof; sc that some are led to improvement by praise and others by chastisement : in truth, he who is eminent for virtue is able to be of great, and extensive, and just service to all, according to his power.

"What is the meaning of, " Thy name shall not be called Abram, but Abraham shall thy name be ?"

43. Some of those who are destitute of all knowledge of music and dancing, some indeed being wholly foolish and keeping aloof from the divine company, mock the one existing or only wise Being, immaculate by nature, saying, in a tone of vituperation, " Oh the great gift, the governor and Lord of the whole universe has given one letter, by which the name of the patriarch was to be increased and become of great importance, so as to be made a trisyllable instead of a dissyllable !" Oh the great misery, and wickedness, and impiety, of such men ! If some persons dare, in any respect, to endeavour to detract from God, being deceived by the outward appearance of a name, when they ought rather to thrust their minds down into the depths, and inquire into the things themselves more closely, on account of the real magnitude and importance of the possession.

Besides this, why do ye not think the concession of one letter, although a small and easy gift, nevertheless an act of

providence ? and why do ye not weigh its value ? since, above all things, the very first element of language, as expressed in letters, is A, both in order and in virtue. In the second place, it is also a vowel, and the very first of vowels, being placed above them as their head. In the third place, because it does not belong to long properties, nor to short properties, but it is of the number of those which comprise each characteristic, for it is extended into greater length, and then again it is recalled into shortness, by reason of its softness, resembling wax, and being figured into many shapes, and afterwards figuring words, according to infinite numbers ; besides all this it is a cause, for it is the brother of unity, from which all things begin and in which all things terminate.

Therefore, when any one sees such great beauty, and a letter set forth with such great importance and necessity, how can he accuse it as if he had not seen this ? for if he has seen it, he then shows himself to be a person of insulting disposition and a hater of what is good ; and if he has not seen a fact, which is so easy to comprehend, how does he presume to ridicule and despise that which he does not understand as if he did understand it ? But however these things may be said by the way, as I stated before. But we must now examine into its necessary and most important task.

The addition of the letter A, by one single element, changed and reformed the whole character of the mind, causing it, instead of the sublime knowledge and learning of sublime things, that is to say, instead of astronomy, to acquire a comprehension of wisdom, since it is by the knowledge of things above that the faculty is acquired of mounting up to one portion of the world, that is to say, to heaven, and to the periodical revolutions and motions of the stars ; but wisdom has reference to the nature of all things, both such as are visible to the outward senses, and such as are appreciable only by the intellect, for the intellect is the wisdom which gives a knowledge of divine and human things and of their principles.

Therefore, in divine things there is something which is visible, and something else which is invisible, and a demonstrative idea. And in human affairs there are some things

which are corporeal and some which are incorporeal ; to attain to the right comprehension of which is a great task, and a real employment for the abilities and courage of man. But to be able, not only to behold the substances and natures of the universe, but also the principles which regulate each separate fact, indicates a virtue more perfect than that which is allotted to mankind ; for it is necessary for the mind, which perceives so many and such great things, to be altogether and wholly eye, and to dispense with sleep, passing its whole existence in the world in a state of incessant wakefulness, and being surrounded by a light which knows no darkness, and which exhibits the appearance of light itself, as by an ever-flashing lightning, taking God for its leader and guide, to the comprehension of the knowledge of those things which are, and to the faculty of explaining their principles.

Therefore the dissyllabic name Abram is explained as meaning " excellent father," on account of his affinity to the knowledge of sublime wisdom, that is, astronomy and mathematics. But the trisyllabic name Abraham is interpreted "the father of elect sound," being the name of a really wise man ; for what else is sound in us, except the utterance of a pronounced word ? for which object we have an instrument constructed by nature, passing through the thick tube of the throat, and united with the mouth and tongue ; and the father of such a sound is our intellect, and elect intellect is endued with virtue.

But if we are to keep to exact propriety, then it is plain that the mind is the familiar and natural father of the uttered word, because it is the especial property of the father to beget, and the word is born from the mind ; and it will be a certain proof of this if we recollect that when it is set in motion by counsels it sounds, and when they are absent it ceases to sound : and the evidences of this are the rhetoricians and philosophers who demonstrate its habit by objects ; for whenever the mind publishes abroad different heads of designs, and in the manner of a mother about to bring forth produces each individual means previously stored up in itself, then also the word, flowing forth like a fountain, is borne to the ears of the bystander as to its appropriate receptacles -. but when those are wanting, then

it also is unable to publish itself further, and rests, and the sound is inactive as being struck by no one.

Now therefore, 0 ye men, full and crammed with superfluous loquacity, ye men devoid of wisdom, does not the gift of one single element appear to you to have been such that by the intervention of a single letter the wise man is rendered worthy of the divine attribute of wisdom, than which there is nothing more excellent in our nature ? because instead of the sublime erudition of astronomy he gave him intellect, that is to say, instead of a small part of wisdom, he gave him the whole and perfect blessing of entire wisdom, since a knowledge of things above is included and comprehended in wisdom, as a part is included in the whole ; for mathematics are only a part.

But it becomes you, O men, to consider this point also, that the man who is well instructed and skilful in the investigation of the nature of things above may by possibility be a man of depraved and wicked habits ; but the wise man is altogether approved as virtuous. Shall we then now any longer ridicule this gift, than which nothing more excellent can be found ? For what is more shameful than wickedness or more excellent than virtue ? Can anything be found here not good, and is it not wholly opposed to evil ? Or can this gift be compared to riches, or honour, or liberty, or health, or to any other superfluous possession of any kind around or exterior to the body ?

For the whole of philosophy is thus added to our life as a sort of college of medicine to the soul, in order from thence to dispense to it freedom from suffering and immunity from disease ; but in truth it is noble to be a philosopher, and that wonderful knowledge is truly noble ; and the end is even more admirable, on account of which the act is called into existence.

Here therefore is wisdom, and that the best kind of wisdom, which God called in the Chaldaic dialect Abraham, namely the father of elect sound, giving as it were a definition of a wise man ; for as the definition of man is a mortal animal endowed with reason, so also the mysterious definition of a wise man is the father of elect sound.

What is the meaning of, "I will greatly increase thee, and

set thee among the nations, and kings shall proceed from

44. That expression, 'Twill greatly increase thee," was used to the wise man with exceeding propriety ; since every wicked or bad man does increase and advance, not to improvement but towards deficiency ; as withering flowers advance not towards life but towards death ; but the man whose life is extended long and is greatly increased is like a passing cloud, or like the continually flowing stream of a river, because as it increases it is extended more and more out of doors, as its wisdom also is divine.

Aud that expression, " I will set thee among the nations," was used in order that God might the more evidently demonstrate that he was making him worthy to be as a foundation and firm support to the nations through his wisdom, not only to his own nation, but also to all other peoples who in various manners are in want in respect of their minds, as has been said before ; since the wise man is the redeemer of nations and intercessor for them before God, and since it is he who implores pardon for the sins of his relations.

Last of all, the promise, " Kings shall come forth from thee," is again used with especial propriety; for everything which relates to wisdom is a royal seed ; the offspring of the chief and master according to nature : but the wise man has no seed or fruit of his own, but is fertile and abundant in the seed which proceeds from the great cause himself.

What is the meaning of, " I will give this land to thee and to thy seed after thee, in which thou hast sojourned, namely all the land of Canaan, for. an everlasting possession ?"f

45. The letter of the promise is so clear that the language does not stand in need of any explanation whatever ; but with respect to the inward meaning of it we must have recourse to an allegory of this kind.

The mind which is endowed with virtue is rather a sojourner in the corporeal space allotted to it, than a regular inhabitant of it ; for its real country is the air and the heaven ; and the earth, and the earthly body in which it is said to sojourn, is only a colony ; therefore the Father, con- * Genesis xvii. 6 f Genesis xvii. 8.

ferring a benefit upon it, gives to it the sovereign authorityover all the things of the earth for ever and ever, as he says himself, for an everlasting possession ; so tbat it for the future shall not be governed by the body, but shall always be its master and ruler, having the body for its servant and attendant.

What is the meaning of, " And every male of you shall be circumcised, and you shall circumcise, or you shall be circumcised in, the flesh of your foreskin ? "

46. I see here a twofold circumcision, one of the male creature, and the other of the flesh ; that which is of the flesh takes place in the genitals, but that which is of the male creature takes place, as it seems to me, in respect of his thoughts.

Since that which is, properly speaking, masculine in us is the intellect, the superfluous shoots of which it is necessary to prune away and to cast off, so that it, becoming clean and pure from all wickedness and vile, may worship God as his priest.

This therefore is what is designated by the second circumcision, where God says by an express law, " Circumcise the hardness of your hearts," that is to say, your hard and rebellious thoughts and ambition, which when they are cut away and removed from you, your most important part will be rendered free.

Why orders he the males only to be circumcised ? f

47. For in the first place, the Egyptians, in accordance with the national customs of their country, in the fourteenth year of their age, when the male begins to have the power of propagating his species, and when the female arrives at the age of puberty, circumcise both bride and bridegroom.

But the divine legislator appoints circumcision to take place in the case of the male alone for many reasons : the first of which is, that the male creature feels venereal pleasures and desires matrimonial connexions more than the female, on which account the female is properly omitted here, while he checks the superfluous impetuosity of the male by the sign of circumcision.

But the second reason is, that the material of the female is supplied to the son from what remains over of the eruption of blood, while the immediate maker and cause of the son is the male. Because therefore the male supplies the most iudispensable part in the act of generation, God deservedly represses his pride by the figure of circumcision, but the material or feminine cause, as being iuactive, does not display ambition in the same degree. And this is enough to say on this head.

But afterwards we must note this likewise, that the intellect in us is endued with the power of sight, therefore it is necessary to cut away its superfluous shoots. And these superfluous shoots are empty opinions, and all the actions which are done in accordance with them. So that the intellect after circumcision may only bear about with itself what is necessary and useful ; and that whatever causes pride to increase may be cut away ; with which also the eyes are circumcised as if they did not see.

■ Why did he say, " And let the child, every male child, be circumcised at eight days old ? "

48. He orders the freeborn to be circumcised, which, in the first place, was permitted on account of diseases that might arise ; for it is more difficult to heal a disease in the genitals, and it is commonly done by burning by fire those parts over which a membrane grows, but this rarely affects those who have been circumcised.

And in truth, if it were possible that other infirmities also could be avoided by amputating any member or any part of the body, so that though it was amputated still the operation of each necessary part would not be hindered, then without the knowledge of mortal man he would be transmitted into immortality.

But that here it was thought fit that man should be circumcised out of a provident care for his mind without any previous infirmity is plain, since not the Jews alone, but also the Egyptians, and Arabians, and Ethiopians, and nearly all the nations who live in the southern parts of the world, down to the torrid zone are circumcised.

"What then is the chief reason of this fact ? except that

in those districts, and especially in the summer, when the genitals are protected with a skin, it burns and is injured byinflammation, but when that covering is laid bare by circumcision it is cooled, and the disease is repelled ; and on this account the northern nations and others, to whom the cooler portion of the habitable earth has been allotted, are not circumcised, for not only is the solar heat moderate in those regions, but so is also all inflammatory disease which affects the membranes of the members. Let every one take a firm judgment, and from that time when the disease comes in more vigorously ; for it never comes at all in the winter, but in the summer it shows itself and flourishes and ripens ; for it loves, if I may so say, like fire to burn in those parts. ' In the second place, it was not only from a regard to sound health that our ancestors diligently employed this method of cure, but also from a regard to the multiplication of the human race, seeing that nature was very vivacious and too eager to propagate the human species.

Therefore they knew, like wise men, how the seed when poured over the folds of the membrane is often accustomed to be wasted and so to become unfruitful ; but if no impediment arises then it would easily be able to arrive at the situation suited to receive it. On which account also those nations which adopt the practice of circumcision have grown into an exceedingly numerous population : and our legislator, weighing the consequences also, commanded the circumcision of infants to be performed at an earlier age, keeping in view the same effect of circumcision with regard to the population.

Therefore it is in truth, as it seems to me, that the Egyptians also in the fourteenth year of their children's age, in which the desire to propagate the species usually begins, have said that it is suitable to circumcise them, with the view of increasing the population ; but it was better and more carefully done in our nation, where the circumcision of infants was ordained, since perhaps the man when grown up would delay the operation out of fear, because he then has a will of his own.

In the third place, he says this with a view to cleanliness in the sacred oblations ; for in truth those who enter into the courts of the temples are made clean by sprinkling and

ablutions. Moreover the Egyptians scrape the whole body, removing all the hairs which cover and envelop the body, so as to appear white all over ; but the circumcision of the skin is no small assistance towards cleanliness, otherwise everyone would abhor it when he beheld it as it is in itself.

In the fourth place, there are in us two generative principles, one in the soul and one in the body ; the generative principle of the soul is the intellect, and that of the body is the corporeal organ ; therefore the ancients chose to refer the generative principle of the body to an imitation of the intellect which is rather the generative principle of the heart. And in truth there is nothing to which it is found more like than the circumcision of the heart ; these therefore are real facts like the celebrated reasons for things which have been investigated. But we must now speak of those which have greater symbols belonging to them and which exhibit a certain principle.

Therefore the circumcision of the skin is said to be a symbol, but as one indicating that it is proper to cut away all superfluous and extravagant desires, by studying continence and religion ; for as the skin of the prepuce is quite superfluous for generation, and is moreover especially injurious by reason of the disease of inflammation which burns within it, so also an over abundance of desire is as superfluous as it is pernicious, superfluous because it is not necessary, and pernicious because it is the cause of diseases to both body and soul ; and by the greater desire he also warns us that all the other desires are likewise to be cut off. And that is called the greater desire which has a regard to the matrimonial connexion of the male and the female ; since it is the beginning of a great thing, namely, of generating ; and since it creates a great affection on the part of the father towards her who is to bring forth ; for it is natural for them both to be influenced by love and affection for their offspring. Therefore, he here warns us to cut away not only all the superfluous desires, but also pride, as being a great wickedness and an associate of wickedness.

For pride, as the language of the ancients tells us, is what keeps men back and hinders them in their improvement ; since it will not exhibit that honesty which it really possesses, thinking that it is itself an adequate

cause for anything. Moreover it naturally influences those who think themselves the causes of generation; so that they scarcely ever turn their minds at all to behold the true Father of the universe. For he is in truth the one real and genuine Father of all ; and we, who are called fathers, are only instruments of his, serving to generation ; since, as in a wonderful resemblance, all things which are represented in appearance are yet in reality inanimate, but that which strengthens the nerves is invisible, and yet is itself the cause of virtue, and of motion, and of sight. So, in like manner, from everlasting and invisible space there extends the Creator of the universe, and we, like so many puppets, are strengthened by him with nerves for the purpose which belongs to us, namely, sowing seed and raising a generation ; unless we choose to fancy that a flute is blown by itself, and is not made by an artist in a way adapted for the production of harmony, by whom it was constructed as an instrument for service and for its own necessary end.

Why does he order circumcision to be performed on the eighth day ?

49. The number eight has many beauties in it ; for it is, in the first place, a cubic number. Secondly, it has beauties, because it everywhere contains in itself the form of equality, because longitude, and breadth, and depth, which are all equal to one another, are indicated by the first number eight.

In the third place, the composition of the uumber eight produces agreement, namely, the number thirty-six, which the Pythagoreans call agreement, since that is the first number in which odd numbers being added together agree with even numbers. If, indeed, four odd numbers from the unit are separately taken and added together and four even numbers beginning with two, they united make thirty-six. Now the odd numbers are these : one, three, five, seven, which make sixteen. And the even numbers are these : two, four, six, eight, which make twenty. And the addition of the two together makes thirty-six, which is in truth a more fertile number.

Since it is a square, having each side composed of the * Genesia xvii. 12.

number six ; the first of which is both odd and even ; which some persons most correctly call harmony or matrimony ; and it was by the employment of this number that the Creator of the universe made the world, as the holy and admirable book of Moses relates.

In the fourth place, the idea of eight produces sixtyfour, which is the first number, which is a cube and also a square, being the type of incorporeal substance appreciable only by the intellect and invisible, and also of corporeal substance. Of incorporeal substance, inasmuch as it produces superficies according to the square; and of corporeal substance, as producing a sohd according to the cube.

In the fifth place, it is always a kindred number to the virgin number seven, for seven makes up the parts of eight ; because four is the half of it, two is the fourth part of it, one the eighth of it, and four, two, and one, added together, make seven.

In the sixth place, the power of eight is sixty-four, which we call the first number, being both a cube and a square.

In the seventh place, taken separately from the units by these doubled numbers, one, two, four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two, the sum makes sixty-four.

And the number eight has also other more distinguished virtues still, which we have enumerated in another place ; but now it seems better to explain the principle which corresponds to the present question, and which depends on the grounds now laid down.

But in the first place we must premise this : that nation to whom it is enjoined, having the commandments given to it, that it should be circumcised on the eighth day, is called in the Chaldaic language Israel, that is to say, " he that seeth by day." Therefore Grod wills, in the first place, that he should be a partaker both of his own just rights, and also of those which exist according to election, and according to the principle of Genesis (or creation), by that first number six, which immediately followed the creation. This number, in fact, the Father and Creator of all things evidently exhibited to the world as the festival of generation, completing the world on the sixth day. And the other number, that which is according to election, he exhibited by the number eight, which is the beginning of the second seven ;

454 PHILO JUD-iEUS.

as eight is seven and one, so the race which has heen honoured is always a race receiving that number also in addition, so that it should be elect, both by nature and in accordance with the decree of the Father.

In the second place, the number eight exhibits equality everywhere, showing that all its separations are equal, as has been aleady said, I mean its length, and breadth, and depth. And equality it is which is the parent of equity and justice, by which he shows that the nation which loves Grod is adorned with equity or justice, and has advanced to complete possession.

In the third place, eight is not only a measure of complete equity in all its dimensions, but is the very first number that is so, for it is the first cube ; since the number eight indicates equality, and so it has the second and not the first rank: therefore it demonstrates in a symbolical manner that that nature Was the first which was ever completely furnished with consummate and perfect equity and justice, and that it is the first nature of the human race, not in point of creation or of time, but in the dignity of virtue, as if justice united with equality were a connatural part of it.

In the fourth place, since there are four elements, the appearances of earth, water, air, and fire ; fire has received for its figure a shape becoming a similar name, a pyramid;* and air has received for its figure an eight-sided one ; water, a twenty-sided one ; and the earth, a cube. Therefore he thought it necessary that the earth, which was to be the allotment of the race of man, who were endowed with virtue should participate in the cubic number, as the whole earth has been formed in its figure. And a part of it receives the parts of that which should bring forth, because by nature the earth is very fertile, producing all the various and distinct species of every kind of animal and plant.

Why does he order all slaves to be circumcised, those born in the family and also those who are bought ?t

50. The literal meaning is plain; for it is fitting that servants should imitate their masters on account of their

7Tvpafii£, resembling the word xvp, " fire." + Geneeis xvii. 12.

necessary employment, and the services to which they are bound in life. But with respect to the inner object of the command, those dispositions are what may be called born in the family which are influenced by nature itself, and those are bought wbich can be changed for the better by teaching and instruction. Each of these has its appropriate employment, and requires like a plant to be cleared and pruned in order that the good and fruitful parts may acquire constancy; for fertile plants produce many superfluous things by reason of their fecundity, and those superfluities must be cut away ; but those who are taught by instructors cut away their ignorance.

What is the meaning of, " And it shall be my covenant (or agreement) in your flesh ? "

51. God is willing to do good, not only to the man who is endued with virtue, but he wishes that the divine word should regulate not only his soul but his body also, as if it had become its physician. And it must be its care to prune away all excesses of seeing, and hearing, and taste, and smell, and touch, and also those of the instrument of voice and articulation, and also all the redundant and pernicious impulses of the genitals, as also of the whole body, the effect of which is, that at times we are delighted by our passions and at times pained by them.

Why is it that he pronounces a sentence of death on an infant, saying, " Every male child who is not circumcised, who has not been circumcised (or, as the Greek has it, who shall not be circumcised) in the flesh of his foreskin on the eighth day, that soul shall be cut oft* from his generation? "t

52. The law never declares a man guilty for any unintentional offence ; since even those who have committed an unintentional homicide are pardoned by it, cities being set apart into which such men may flee and there find security ; for whoever escapes to them is rendered secure and free from, danger ; and no one has the power to drag him forth, or to cite him before the tribunal of the judge for the deed.

Therefore, if a boy is not circumcised on the eighth day

• Genesia xvii. 13. t Genesis xvii. 14.

after his birth, what offence will he have committed that he is to be held guilty, and suffer the penalty of death ?

Some persons may perhaps say that the form of the command points to the parents themselves, for they look upon them as despisers of the command of the law. But others say that it has here exerted excessive severity against infants, as it seems, imposing this heavy penalty in order that grown up persons who break the law may thus be irrevocably subjected to most severe punishment. This is the literal effect of the words.

But if we look to their inward meaning, then what is male in us is most especially the intellect, and that God here commands to be circumcised on the eighth day, for the reason previously stated, not in any other part, but in the flesh of the foreskin, by this expression symbolically indicating those parts which in the flesh do subsequently become the organs of pleasure and impulse. And on this account it is that he introduces a legitimate reason, warning men that the intellect, which is not circumcised and cleared away from the flesh and the vices of the flesh, is corrupt and cannot be saved.

But that this language is not to be applied to the man, but to the intellect, which is thus put in a sound condition, he tells us in the subsequent words, saying, " that soul shall be cut off," not that human body, or that man, but that soul and mind. Cut off from what ? From its generation ; for the whole generation is incorrupt. Therefore the wicked man is removed from incorruption to corruption.

"Why does God say, " Sara thy wife shall not be called Sara, but Sarra shall be her name ? "

53. Here again some foolish persons may laugh at the addition cf one single letter, that is to say, of a hundred, for in Greek characters the letter g means a hundred ; but if they jest in this way they are foolish, as being unwilling to behold the inward merits of things and to cleave to the footsteps of truth ; for that element, g, which is here thought of merely as the addition of one letter, is the parent of all harmony, making things great instead of small, general instead of particular, and mortal instead of im-

mortal ; since Sara, when called Sara with one g, is interpreted " thy princedom," but with two g's, Sarra, " princess." Let us then be careful, and see how these two names are distinguished from one another. In me wisdom (or prudence), integrity (or temperance), justice, and fortitude have only a prince-like power and are mortal; moreover, when I die they die too.

But this wisdom is herself a princess, and justice is a prince too, and each separate one of these virtues is not the principal or princely part in me, but is itself a mistress and a queen, an everlasting monarchy and sovereignty. Do you not now see the magnitude of the gift ? By this slight change, God changes the part into the whole, the species into the genus, the corruptible into the incorruptible. And all these things are previously dispensed on account of the impending birth of a more perfect joy than all joys, whose name is Isaac.

Why does he say, " And from her I will give thee children, and I will bless him, and he shall be over the nations, and kings of the nations shall come forth from him ? "

54. It is scarcely proper to inquire why he has said children in the plural number, when he meant their only and beloved son ; for the intention of Grod's words applies to his offspring, from which nations and kings should arise.

This is the literal meaning of the words. But if we look to their more inward sense, when the soul possesses that virtue, small and mortal as it is, which is only particular, she is still barren. But from the time that it acquires a share of the divine and incorruptible virtue, it begins to conceive and to bring forth varieties of nations, namely, of all other holy and sacred persons ; for every one of the everlasting virtues is subject to an immense number of voluntary laws, which bear in themselves a similarity to nations and kingdoms ; for virtue and the generations of virtue are royal things, being previously instructed by nature what it is which rejoices in princely power, and has no knowledge of a servile condition.

Why did Abraham fall on his face and laugh ? f

458 PHILO JUTL-EUS.

55. Two tilings are indicated by his falling on his face. One an act of adoration on account of the excess of his divine ecstacy ; the other that it corresponds to and is suitable to the aforesaid harmony, by which the intellect has confessed that God alone exists in a continual and unvarying existence. But those creatures which owe their existence to creation and generation, all are subject to changes in time ; for they fall to a certain extent, inasmuch as they are accustomed to rise up, and to be corrected in accordance with their original appearance.

And it was very natural for Abraham to laugh at the promise, as he was then filled with the great hope that the things which he expected should be accomplished, especially because he had received a manifest revelation from that appearance, by which he became more thoroughly acquainted with him who exists for everlasting without variation, and with him also who is continually stooping and falling.

Why did Abraham appear to hesitate about the promise, for the sacred writer says, He said in his mind, shall there be a son to one who is a hundred years old ; and shall Sarra, who is ninety years old, bring forth a child ?

56. This expression, "he said in his mind," is not added without an object or gratuitously, for words which are articulated in the tongue and the mouth incur guilt, and become liable to punishment, but those which are restrained within the mind are not liable to punishment, because the mind without any intention on its part is led away byirregularities, all kinds of passions being introduced from different quarters, which it for a while resists, being indignant at them, and wishing to keep aloof from their representations.

But perhaps we should not say that he hesitated, but rather that he was struck by wonderment at the amazing nature of the gift, and so said, " Behold my body is advanced in years, and has passed the age of generation ; nevertheless all things are possible to God, so that he may transmute old age into youth, and lead those who have no seed nor fruit to fertility and generation : and if a man who is a hundred years and a woman who is ninety years old

Genesis xxii. 18.

become parents, all common-place occurrences and all regularity of nature will be done away, and it will be clearly seen that it is only the power and the grace of Grod."

But what virtue the number one hundred has must now be explained.

In the first place, a hundred is the power of the number ten.

In the second place, the number ten thousand is the power of this number a hundred, and ten thousand is the brother of the unit, for as one times one is one, so ten thousand times one is ten thousand.

In the third place, every part of the number a hundred is honourable.

In the fourth place, this number consists of thirty-six and sixty-four, which is a cube, and at the same time a triangle.

In the fifth place, it is composed of all these separate odd numbers : one, three, five, seven, nine, eleven, thirteen, fifteen, seventeen, nineteen, which added together make a hundred.

In the sixth place, it is composed of these four numbers : one and its double, and four and its double ; as one, two, four, eight, which make fifteen, and of these four numbers also added together, one, four, fifteen, sixty-four, which make eighty-five. And the principle of doubling pervades all these numbers, containing that principle which is by fours and by fives : and the principle of four times and twice pervades them all.

In the seventh place, it is composed of five numbers taken simply, one, two, three, four, which make ten ; and of five triangular numbers, one, three, six, ten, which make twenty ; and of five quadrangular numbers, one, four, nine, sixteen, which make thirty ; and of five quinquangular numbers, one, five, twelve, twenty -two, which make forty : and all these added together make a hundred.

In the eighth place, it is composed of four cubes taken simply beginning with the unit, for after giving one, two, three, four, their cubes one, eight, twenty-seven, sixty-four, make a hundred.

In the ninth place, it is divided into forty and sixty, each of which is a very natural number ; and in accordance with

the first order of decimals up to ten thousand in a quinquanguiar figure the number a hundred holds the middle place ; for instance : one, ten, a hundred, one thousand, ten thousand, where a hundred is the middle number of one, ten, a hundred, one thousand, and ten thousand.

But we ought also not to pass over in silence the number ninety as far as it concerns the visible characters.

As it seems to me the number ninety is second only to the number a hundred, inasmuch as the tenth part of it, that is to say ten, is taken away, since I see that in the law two-tenths of the first-fruits were set apart, first a tenth of the whole, secondly a tenth of the remainder, for when a tenth of the fruits of the earth, of corn, or wine, or oil, is taken, another tenth is also taken from the remainder ; therefore of these two that which is the first and principal one is honoured with the greater share ; and in the second place that which follows it, since the number a hundred of the years of the wise man comprises both the first-fruits with which it is consecrated, both the first and the second kind ; but the number ninety of the years of the female parent, comprehends the second and lesser first-fruits, namely, the remainder of the first, which is the great one among the sacred numbers.

This therefore may be called the first vision in the sacred law which is familiar; and the other has a general character, for the number ninety is fertile ; on which account also it happens that the woman begins to bring forth in the ninth month ; but the tenth is the sacred and perfect number ; and when the two numbers nine and ten are multiplied together ninety is made, as being the virtue of the sacred birth, receiving a fertile generation according to the number nine, and a holy one according to ten.

"Why did Abraham say to G-od, O may this my son Ishmael live before thee ?

57. In the first place, I do not despair, says he, O Lord, of a better generation, but I believe thy promise : nevertheless, it would be a sufficient blessing for me for this son to live who in the meantime is a living son, standing visibly,

even though he be not so according to the legitimate blood, but is only born of a concubine.

In the second place, that blessing which he is now asking for is an additional one ; for he does not entreat for life alone for his sons, but for an especial Life in God ; and we must suppose that there is nothing more perfect than the rejoicing in the presence of God with a salutary soundness of mind, which is equal to immortality.

In the third place, he by a conjecture intimates that the divine law, when heard, ought not to be considered enough if merely heard, but that it ought also to enter more deeply into the inward man, and to form his principal part ; for that life is worthy of being beheld by the Deity which is formed in accordance with his word.

Why does the divine oracle, in the way of intimation, say to Abraham, Yes, be it so : behold Sarah thy wife shall also bring forth a son unto thee ?

58. The meaning of this sentence is as follows : that confession and admission, says God, is on my part an admission of thy wish, being manifestly full of unadulterated joy ; and your faith is not doubtful, but without any hesitation it has a share of modest awe and reverence ; therefore that which thou hast received before, as to be done unto thee on account of thy faith in me, shall certainly be done ; for this is what is meant by yes.

"Why does he say, But behold I will also listen to thee concerning Ishmael, and I will bless him, and he shall become the father of twelve nations ?f

59. God says, I will grant to thee both the first and the second blessing, that is to say, both the blessings of nature and the blessings of instruction ; by nature that which is according to the legitimate course of nature, that is Isaac, and by instruction that which is according to Ishmael, who is not legitimate: for hearing, when compared with sight, is like the illegitimate compared with the legitimate, and what is brought about by instruction is not of the same class with that which owes its existence to nature ; and the man who is desirous of encyclical wisdom becomes the father of

nations, for the encyclical number is a period of twelve days and years.

"Why does he say, But I will set up my covenant with Isaac, whom Sarah shall bring forth about this time in the succeeding year r

60. As in men's wills some persons are set down as heirs, and some are entered as worthy of gifts which they are to receive from the heirs, so also in the divine testament that man is set down as the heir who is by nature a worthy disciple of God being adorned with all perfect virtues ; but he who is introduced by learning, and is made subject to the law of wisdom, and partakes in. encyclical instruction, is not at all an heir, but only a receiver of gifts gratuitously given.

But it is said with great wisdom and propriety that his mother shall bring forth Isaac in the succeeding year, since this birth unto life does not belong to the present time, but to another great and holy time ; and that which is divine rejoices in excessive abundance, and is by no means like the nations of this world.

Why does he say, Abraham was ninety and nine years old when he was circumcised, and Ishmael his son was thirteen years old ? t

61. The number of ninety and nine years is arranged here as approximating to the number a hundred. And it is in accordance with this number that it is arranged that the seed of the perfect man becomes the beginning of generation, which appears more evidently in the number a hundred ; but the number thirteen is composed of the first square numbers of four and nine, the odd and even numbers ; so that the even number has for its sides a twofold material form ; and the odd number has an operative form, from all which a triple number is made, which is the greatest and most perfect of the festival victims which the examinations of the sacred scriptures contain.

This is one reason. A second also it may be allowed to us to mention, that the age namely of thirteen years is very near to and a partaker with the fourteenth year, in which the motions of seed towards generation begin to have life, lu

order, therefore, that no foreign seed should be sown, he arranged that the first generations should be kept pure, figuring the instrument of generating under the figure of generation.

In the third place, he teaches that he who is about to go through the operations of matrimony ought by all means first of all to cut away concupiscence, reproving all lascivious and effeminate persons as those who bring together superfluous mixtures which were not for the sake of the generation of children but to gratify incontinent desires.

Why did Abraham also circumcise strangers?

62. The wise man is as useful as the humane man, who saves and invites to himself not only his relations andn eighbours, but also strangers and men of another family, giving them a share of his own habit of patient and religious continence ; for these are the foundations of constancy, which is the object of all virtue, and the point at which it rests.

Genesis svii. 27.

A, the letter, the very first element of language, iv. 444.

Aaron, meaning of the name, i. 119, his mouthpiece, interpreter, and prophet, i. 25 1 ; changes the river into blood, iii. 22; other miracles performed by him, 23 ; constituted high priest, 103; his sacred vestments, ii. 66 ; his sacrifice consumed by fire from heaven, iii. 106 ; his rod blossoms, 111.

Abse, the temple of, burnt, iv. 231.

Abel and Cain, Sacrifices of, i.

Abihu, meaning of, ii. 81.

Abimelech, covenant of Isaac with,

Abraham, Life of, ii. 396.

Abraham, Migration of, ii. 43.

Abraham, the founder of the Jewish nation, iv. 181; meaning of his name, i. 12.9 ; his departure from his country, ii. 43; symbolical 406 ; symbols represented by the name, ii. 251 ; his offering of Isaac, 333 ; fortune of his posterity, iv.

Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, symbols of the three natures of God, ii. 240.

Abram, his name changed to Abrasvmbols represented by the name VOL. IT. H

Abuse, a wise man refuses to engage

Achetnan, meaning of, i. 299.

Actions, various classes of, according to the dialecticians, i. 406.

Actors, censure of, iv. 145.

Adam, interpretation of the name, i. 75 ; the last work in the creation of the world, 22 ; his beauty both of soul and body, 40 ; the viceroy of God, 44 ; woman the cause of his fall, 44 ; expelled from paradise,

Adin. See Eden.

Adultery, symbolical meaning of, i. 146 ; the commandment against, man accused of, 317.

jEgina swallowed up by the sea, iv.

^Eschvlus, citations from, iv. 40 ; iii.

Affliction, what kind of, profitable, ii.

Age, a name given to the life of the

Agrippa, king, his visit to Alexandria, iv. 66 ; insulted by the populace, 68 ; protects the Jews against Flacwrites to him against his projected .desecration of the Temple, 1 60.

Agrippa, Marcus, his offerings in the temple of Jerusalem, iv. 164.

Agrippina, death of, alluded to, iv. 63.

Aileem, a place with twelve fountains and seventy palm-trees, symbolical of the twelve tribes and seventy elders, iii. 42.

Air, the, symbolically represented by a ladder reaching from earth to heaven, ii. 322 ; filled with living things, i. 331 ; the cause of health and disease, 331.

Air and light, creation of, i. 7.

Alexander, of Macedon, foolish boast of, i. 191 ; fall of the successors

Alexandria, turbulent character of its people, iv. 67 ; their oppression of

Allegories of the Sacred Laws,

Almond, character of the, iii. 112; blossoming of Aaron's rod, iii. 3 ; symbolical of perfect virtue, 112.

Aloadas, fable of the, ii. 2.

Altar, why built by Noah, iv. 380.

Altars, why two, ordered to be pre-

Amalek, meaning of, ii. 168.

Amalekites, king of the, destroyed,

Ambassadors, Treatise on the Virtues and on the Office of,

Amorites, the, symbolical meaning of,

Amram, the father of Moses, ii. 184.

Anaphe, a name of the island of

Anarchy, the cause of evils, ii. 394 ;

Anaxagoras, inconsiderate conduct of, titude, iii. 529.

Ancestry, pride of, ridiculed, iii. 497.

Andros, the island of, a place of banishment, iv. 92.

Angels, the ministers of God, ii. 237 ; both good and bad, i. 332 ; called demons by philosophers, 331 ; why made to resemble men, iv. 252 ; their likeness assumed by God, ii. 341 ; assume the human shape, iv.

334 ; visit of the, to Abraham, ii. 418 ; figurativel} explained, 420.

Angels, demons, and souls, identity

Animals fit for Sacrifice, Trea-

Animals, principle of the generation winged and terrestrial, creation of, the irrational, created for the sake

Annan, symbolical meaning of, ii. 80.

Antigonides, the flute-player, ready

Antisthenes, remark of, on the virtu-

Antonius, fragments of Philo preserv-

Apelles, a tragic actor, his hatred of the Jews, iv. 145 ; his punishment,

Apollo, the inventor of medicine, iv. 122 ; his various attributes, 120; his character assumed by Caligula,

Appetites, evil arising from the indul-

Aquatic animals, creation of, i. 17 ; the clean and unclean, iii. 381.

Arabia, retreat of Moses to, iii. 12 ; circumcision practised in, iv. 449.

Archons of Athens, ii. 398.

Argonautic voyagers all free men, ii.

Aristarchus, fortitude of, iii. 530.

Aristippus, a cynic philosopher, i. 447.

Aristotle, his opinions concerning the world, iv. 23 ; his definition of happiness, 423.

Ark, the, an emblem of the body, i.

Ark of the tabernacle described, iii. 94.

Arnon, interpreted,!. 169.

Arphaxad, meaning of, ii. 275.

Arrogance, censure of, iii. 451.

Ascalon, pigeons whv abundant there,

Aseneth, wife of Joseph, ii. 309.

Ashes, meaning of the sprinkling of, in purification, iii. 230.

Ashriel, the son of Manasseh, ii. 166.

Asser, a symbol of wealth, ii. 351 .

Astronomy the queen of all the scien-

Atalantes, island of, overwhelmed beneath the sea, iv. 59.

Atheism, the greatest of all vices, iii.

Athens, praise of, iii. 536.

Audro, a Jewish elder, plundered and scourged, iv. 76.

Augustus, the emperor, his favour to

Authority, the cause of good, ii. 394.

Autolycus, feast given by, iv. 1 3.

Babel, tower of, ii. 2.

Babylon, the sacrifice of children not practised in, ii. 434 ; the Jews dwelling there, iv. 161.

Bacchus, blessings conferred on man-

Baker, the chief, of Pharaoh, his

Balaam, meaning of, ii. 34 ; an im-

Balak, meaning of, ii. 14; his messages to BaUiam, iii. 59.

Banquets of the Greeks, two most celebrated, iv. 13; of intemperate men contrasted with those of the Therapeutae, iv. 9 ; full of trifling and folly, 15.

Barad, meaning of, ii. 237.

Basket of First-Fruits, Treatise on the Festival of the, iii. 291.

Baskets, the three, symbolically ex-

Bassus, a centurion, sent to Alexandria, iv. 83; apprehends Flaccid,

Bear, constellation of the, i. 54.

Beasts, creation of, i. 18; subjection of, to man. 25 ; the passions compared to, 83 ; their destruction in the deluge, iv. 349 ; humane treatthe cause of a man's death, law regarding, iii. 339; clean and un-

Beauty of images, statues, and pic-

Bees, why accounted unclean, iii. 236.

Beginning, spoken of by Moses, how to be understood, i. 7.

Belly, symbolical meaning of the, i.

Benjamin, meaning of, ii. 256 ; an emblem of time, ii. 351.

Bethuel, meaning of, ii. 204.

Besaleel, or Bezaleel, meaning of, i.

Bias of Priene, retort of, to Croesus,

Bible. See Septuagint.

Bilhah, or Billah, meaning of, i. 146.

Birds, creation of, i. 17; symbolical meaning of, ii. 139 ; why not divided in the sacrifices, 139.

Blasphemy, no pardon for, ii. 211 ; instances of its punishment, 250 ;

Blessings, promised to those who observe the Law, iii. 477.

Blind, deaf, and other afflicted persons, laws for the protection of, iii.

Blood, the, why called the life of the

Bodleian Library, fragments of Philo preserved in the, iv. 276.

Body, the, symbolized by the ark, i. Moses' explanation of the divisions

Boethus, the Stoic, embraces the doctrine of the incorruptibility of

Boils and blains, plague of, in Egypt,

Bold and brave men, remark on, iv.

Bone of mv bone, explained, i. 90 ;

Boxers. See Athletes.

Bow in the clouds, explained, iv. 393.

Boys, love of, condemnation of, iii. 1 2.

Brazen serpent, the, i. 100.

Bread and salt, the food of the The-

Breadth, torpor of, explained, iii. 467.

Breastplate of the high priest, described, iii. 195.

Breath of the Deity, iv. 364.

Breathed into, explained, i. 60 ; iv.

Bricks, baking of, its symbolical meaning, ii. 21.

Brutus, his attack on the Xanthians, iii. 532 ; the murderer of his king and benefactor, 532.

Bura, swallowed up by the sea, iv. 58.

Burning bush, miracle of the, ii. 227;

Burnt offering. See Victims.

Butler of Pharaoh, symbolical mean-

Caddes, fountain of, ii. 234.

Cadesh, meaning of, iv. 437.

Caesar and Pompey, war of, iv. 131.

Cain, Treatise on the Posterity

Cain and Abel, Sacrifices of, i. 207.

of, 185 ; a tiller of the ground, his sacrifice, 217; his murder of why not mentioned as dying, ii. 206 ; why, though the elder, mentioned after Abel, iv. 316 ; his punishment, 321, 322; omitted from the genealogy of Adam, 326.

Cains (Caligula), accession of, iv. 63 ; his liberality to Agrippa, 66 ; orders Flaccus to be seized, 83 ; puts him and other banished magistrates to death, 98; his sickness, 103; his

his impiety, 116; fancies himself a

god, 116 ; his hatred of the Jews,

statue in the holy of holies, 146 ;

his anger at the delay of Petronius,

156; yields to the entreaties of

temper, 173; his strange reception

of the Jewish ambassadors, 176. Caius Norbanus, letter of, concerning

Calanus, the Indian, his speech and

letter to Alexander, iii. 527. Caleb, meaning of, ii. 262. Caligula. See Caius. Camel, the, an unclean beast, i. 404. Camels, symbolical meaning of, i. 32 ! . Canaan, son of Noah, evil conduct of,

Canaan, land of, the emblem of

wickedness, ii. 174; promised to

Canaanites, defeat of, by the Hebrews.

iii. 57 ; sometimes called Cappa-

Candlestick, the sacred, symbolical

meaning of its trunk and branches,

ii. i 36 ; an imitation of the seven

planets, 137. Capito, the collector of the imperial

revenues in Judaea, his false charges

against the Jews, iv. 144. j Cappadocians, the Canaanites so

Captives, female, humane directions

regarding, iii. 438. Carabbas, a madman, his mock coronation at Alexandria, iv. 68. Carbuncle and emerald, symbolically

Carcases and bodies torn by wild

beasts, law of Moses regarding, iii.

Carthage, its fall, i. 376. Cast out and sent out, the difference

Castor and Pollux, iv. 118. Categories, the, ten only in number,

Cattle and beasts, creation of, i. 18.

Caution, likened to a wall, ii. 359.

Cenchreae, the dockyard of Corinth,

Centurions appointed by Moses, ii.

Ceos, isle of, peopled by Japhet, iv.

Chaldeeans, the sacrifice of children not practised among the, ii. 434 ; their skill in astronomy and genealogies, 82 ; land of the, symbolically explained, iv. 406.

Chameleon, its wonderful property, i.

Changes of countries and nations, enumeration of, i. 376.

Chaos, opinions of Aristotle and others concerning, iv. 25.

Character impressed on man, meaning

Chariot of the soul, i. 393; of Cleo-

metropolis of the outward senses,

Chatterers, censure of, iv. 246.

Chemosh, meaning of, i. 169.

Cherubim, what to be understood by

Chest, the seat of courage, i. 138.

Cheth, meaning of, ii. 360.

Cheturah, meaning of, i. 215.

Children, ignorant people so termed by Moses, i. 503; sacrifice of, among heathen nations, ii. 433; power of life and death over, given to parents by the law of Moses, iii. 296; happiness of the parents of virtuous,

Chiliarchs appointed by Moses, ii. 179.

Chajreas, an Alexandrian, freedom of

Choruses, male and female, of the Therapeutse, iv. 19; an imitation of those led by Moses and Miriam, 20.

Chrvsippus, paradoxes of, iv. 40, 45,

Chus, the eldest son of Ham, iv. 405.

Cidaris of the high priest, iii. 97.

Circumcision, Treatise on, iii. 175.

Circumcision, rite of, practised by the Egyptians and other nations,iii. 175; what things a symbol, 176; when ordained, i v. 448; why to be performed on the eighth day, 452; neglect of, who punishable for, 277,

Cities, two species of, ii. 23.

Cities, Levitical, i. 238.

Cities of refuge, ii. 212; reasons for their number and situation, 212; why chosen from the Levitical cities, 213; why the refugees might return on the death of the high

Cities and houses, symbolical mean-

City built by Cain, meaning of, i. 297.

Cleanthes, his opinion on the conflagration of the world, iv. 45.

Clean and unclean animals, iii. 380.

Cleopatra, chariot of, iv. 129.

Clothing, symbolical meaning of, ii.

Command, recommendation, distinguished, i. 76.

Commandments, On the Ten, iii. 136.

Commandments, the ten, summary of,

Concealment from God, symbolically

Concubinage, iii. 321.

Concubines and wives, ii. 1 62.

Conflagrations and regenerations of the world, the Stoic opinion of successive, combated, iv. 32.

Confusion op Languages, On the,

Conscience, an incorruptible and unerring judge, iv. 243.

Conscience, power of, remark on, iv.

Contemplative Life, Treatise on

Contentiousness and disobedience, i.

Contentment, remarks on, iv. 265. Contests at the public games, their

worthless character, i. 401 ; the Olympian contest only esteemed sacred, 402; drinking contests, 448.

Cook. See Baker.

Corn, Pharaoh's vision of the ear of,

Corruption of all flesh, iv. 337.

Courage and boldness discriminated,

Covenant, Isaac's, with Abimelech, iv.

Covetousness, the commandment

Cowardly and wavering people, re-

Cowards, reasons for exempting from military service, iii, 417.

Creation of the World, as described by Moses, Treatise on,

Creation of animals, iv. 293.

Creation of the world, questions concerning the, iv. 284.

Creeping things given for food, iv. 387.

Critolaus, his arguments for the eter-

Crocodile, the, honoured in some parts of Egypt, but injured in

Croesus, king of Lydia, his fall, ii. 480.

Cultivation of the earth, iv. 395.

Curse pronounced on the serpent, iv.

Curses against those who violate the

Custom , a singular, of some cities, i. 275 .

Custom and familiarity, remark on, iv.

Customs, observance of, i. 463.

Cyclops, country of the, iv. 240.

Damage, law concerning, iii. 360. Damascus, meaning of, ii. 104. Damocles, story of, iv. 229. Dan, meaning of, i. 397 ; how likened

division, ii. 351.

Dardanian women, their disdain of slavery, iii. 531.

Darkness, plague of, in Egypt, iii. 28.

Daughters, metaphorically used for arts and sciences, i. 192.

Daughters of men, what meant by, i.

Daughters of Midian, symbolical mean-

Death, two kinds of, i. 79; in what cases inflicted by the laws of Moses,

Death, shadow of, symbolical mean-

Debtors, the law respecting, symbolically explained, ii. 312.

Debtors and creditors, proper conduct

Decade, the all-perfect, the number 4 its origin, i. 12; excellent things attributed to, by Moses, ii. 175; properties of the, iii. 140.

Decalogue. See Commandments.

Deceits, what kind of, allowable, iv.

Deios, island of, said to have risen

Deluge, the great, an image of sin, ii. its cessation, iv. 376.

Demeter, iv. 2.

Demetra, name given to the earth, and

Democracy, a well-ordered, the best of all constitutions, iii. 455.

Democritus, inconsiderate conduct of, iv. 4; his opinions regarding the incorruptibility of the world, 23.

Deposits, law concerning, iii. 362.

Desire of the wicked, iv. 318.

Deucalion. See Noah.

Dialectics, ii. 161.

Diapason, the, i. 13.

Diatessaron, i. 13.

Diaulos, a foot-race among the Greeks,

Dibon, meaning of, i. 169.

Dicaearchia, a port for vessels for Alexandria, iv. 66.

Dinah, meaning of, ii. 93.

opinions concerning the incorruptibility of the world, iv. 34 ; his ready wit and courage, iii. 532.

Dionysius, an Alexandrian dema-

Dionysius of Sicily, his apprehensions

Dioscuri, legend of the, iii. 148.

Diseases threatened to the disobedient,

Disobedience and contentiousness, i.

Distinctness, praise of, iv. 262.

Dividing rightly, what, iv. 317.

Divine voice, considerations on the,

Divination and augury, whv forbidden,

Division of the victims, symbolical meaning of, ii. 119 ; the birds not divided, and why, 139.

Dog, the name of, a homonymy, i. 446 ; dissimilar things indicated by the name, 446 ; styled the most audacious of beasts, iii. 162.

Dogflies. See Flies.

Dove, the, sent forth by Noah, iv.

Dove's neck, changes of colour of the,

Dragon, judgment likened to the, i.

Dreams sent from God, On the DoctriiNE of, ii. 292.

Dream, Jacob's, explained, ii. 320.

Dreams of waking as well as sleeping persons, ii. 478 ; all things relating to the body dreams, 479.

Dress of the high priest described, iii. 96; its symbolical meaning, 98.

Drinking contests, i. 448.

Drunkenness, considerations on, i. 444 ;

Drusilla, sister of Claudius, her death,

" Dust shalt thou eat," symbolical

Earth, its early production of fruit

and herbs explained, i. 12; why no longer spontaneously productive; cultivation of the, 395; motion of

East, symbolical meaning of, ii. 14.

Eating of the trees of Paradise explained, i. 77.

Eclipses considered as prophetic of events on earth, iv. 236.

Eden, meaning of, i. 1. See Paradise.

Edict of Caius Norbanus Flaccus in favour of the Jews, iv. 168.

Edom, the earthly, its opposition to

Education typified by Hagar, ii. 161 ; the suitable employment of both youth and age, iii. 509.

Egypt, symbolical meaning of, ii. 76. iv. 423; reduced from a sovereign fect of, ii. 366 ; persecution of the six hundred chariots, symbolical

Egyptian midwives, the, symbolical

Egyptians, destruction of the, symbolical meaning of, ii. 392 ; their impiety, iii. 114 ; their ridiculous idolatry, 154; iv. 2; overthrow of, in the Red Sea, iii. 41 ; their haughty and boastful character, i.

Eight, the number, its properties, i.

Eighty, the number, its composition,

Elders, who so called by Moses, i. 504 ; who so regarded among the Therapeutae, iv. 15.

Eleazar of Damascus, ii. 105.

Eleazar, son of Moses, ii. 105.

Elements, the four, i. 440 ; the universe made from, 14; further considerations on, ii. 295.

Eliezer. See Eleazar.

Eliphah, the son of Esau, ii. 168.

Emerald symbolically explained, i.

Encyclical instruction, ii. 172.

Enemies, directions for the treatment

Enoch, meaning of, i. 294 ; oracle respecting him, ii. 244; his transla-

Enoch, son of Cain, and Enoch, son

Envy, remark on, iv. 268; defeated

Ephemereutse, or elders, among the Therapeutae, iv. 15.

Ephraim, blessing of, by Jacob, i.

Ephron, meaning of, ii. 17.

Epicure, censure of the, ii. 353.

Epicurus, his opinions concerning the

Epistritus, its ratio, i. 13.

Equal parts into which the sacrifices were to be divided, symbolical

Equality, remark on, iv. 264.

Equality and inequality, iii. 411.

Er, meaning of, i. 121 ; wickedness

Erroneous judgments, sources of, i.

Esau, meaning of, ii. 169; his wickedness, i. 107; his skill in hunting injurious to himself, ii. 144 ; con-

Eschol, symbolical meaning of, ii. 79.

Essenes, account of the, iii. 523 ; iv.

Eternity properly means "to-day,"

Ethiopia, interpretation of the name,

Ethiopian woman, the, symbolically

Eunuch, figurative meaning of, ii. 466.

Euodius, a Jewish elder, plundered and scourged, iv. 76.

Euphrates, a river of Paradise, symbolically explained, i. 70; ii. 157;

Euphrates, the river, a boundary of

Eurystheus and Hercules, iii. 532. Eusebius, fragments of the works of

Philo preserved by, iv. 210.

Evening and morning, creation of, i. 8. Evidence, faithful, iv. 251. Evils, influx of, the soul disturbed

Evil-speaking, iv. 244. Evilat, the land of, i. 69. Exiles and citizens, iii, 507. Eye, its excellent services to the

Eye, the, and the mind, their offices

Eye and sight, remark on the, iv. 264.

Face of God, a figurative expression,

Face of the living God, explained, iv.

Faith of Abraham, ii. 450. Fallow, the land directed to be left,

wisdom of the injunction, iii. 407. False swearing, hateful to God, iv. 274. False witness, the commandment

Famine, threat of, iii. 486 ; in Egypt,

Farmer the virtuous man compared

Fat, why men commanded to abstain

from eating, iii. 386. Fate and necessity not taught by

Father and mother, symbolical mean- Fathers, question as to what is meant

Female garments, why forbidden to

Festivals, On the Ten, iii. 265. Festivals, why ten in number, iii. 265;

Festivals, abuses at, i. 198.

Fevers, periodical changes in, ii. 32.

Field, the principles of philosophy

Fifteen cubits, explanation of, ii. 360.

Fiftieth vear, ordinances regarding the,

Fifty, the most 'holy and natural of numbers, iv. 15.

Fig-leaves, girdles of, iv. 305.

Fire, its use in the Stoic philosophy, from heaven to consume the sacrifices when Aaron was appointed high priest, iii. 106; on the altar, why to be kept burning for ever, iii.

First-born, death of the, in Egvpt, iii.

First-fruits, reason of the command of

Fishes and sea-monsters, creation of,

Flaccus, Treatise agatnst, iv. 61.

Flaccus Avilius made viceroy of Alexandria, iv. 61 ; his wise government in the time of Tiberius, 62 ; his grief on that emperor's death, 63; his apprehensions on the death of Macro, 64 ; is persuaded to persecute the Jews, 65 ; treacherously keeps back their address on the accession of Claudius, 82 ; interference of King Agrippa, 82 ; Bassus, a centurion, seizes Flaccus at an entertainment, 84; heissenttoltaly, 87; is condemned and banished, 92 ; his painful progress to Andros, the place of his exile, 93; his mad-

Flaccus, Caius Norbanus, edict of, in favour of the Jews, iv. 168.

Flaming Sword, On the, i. 175.

Flaming sword of the cherubim, its symbolical meaning, i. 181.

Flatterers, caution against, iv. 273.

Flattery not acceptable to the wise

Flax, fine, emblematic meaning of,

Flies, plague of, in Egypt, iii. 30.

Flight, various causes of, ii. 194. Flour, fine, its symbolical meaning,

Flying creatures, various classes of,

Folly and falsehood, warning against,

Foolish man, the, a slave, iii. 517. Foolish and wicked men, iv. 243. Forty, the number, the produce of

many virtues, ii. 355. Fountain, various senses in which

Fountain, the mind likened to a, i. 59. Fountains of the deep, iv. 359. Four, the number, its perfection and

wonderful powers, i. 12 ; why styled

holy and praiseworthy, ii. 399; dignified in the prophetic books, i.

Fragments op the Lost Works of

Frankincense, ii. 132; its symbolical

meaning, iii. 214. Fratricide, the first, his punishment,

Free, all men so created, iv. 16. Freedom, praise of, iii. 536- French king's library, fragments of

Philo preserved in the, iv. 277. Friends, good, remark on, iv. 257. Friendship, remarks on, iv. 275, 2/6. Frogs, plague of, in Egypt, iii. 23. Fruit of the soul, what, i. 439. Fruit trees not to be destroyed, iii.

Fruits, created in a state of entire

ripeness, i. 1 1 ; reason assigned, 1 1 .

offered to the priests, iii. 433. Fugitives, On, ii. 194. Furnace, human life compared to a

Gaidad, meaning of, i. 300. Galbanum, ii. 132. Game-cocks, courage of, iii. 535. Garment, speech likened to a, ii. 313.

Garments of skin, iv. 311.

Geloni, a Scythian tribe, i. 489.

Genesis, Questions on, and Solu-

Genesis, book of, whence its title de-

Gentiles, isles of the, peopled by

Germans, the, said to assail the sea with their naked swords, ii. 365.

Giants, birth of the, iv. 334.

Gideon, meaning of, ii. 27.

Gifts how distinguished from offerings,

Gift and sacrifice discriminated, iii.

Gihon, a river of Paradise, symboli-

Girgashites, iv. 424.

Gleaners, command concerning, iii.

Glory, twofold meaning of, iv. 283.

Glory of the Lord, how described by

Glutton, character of the, ii. 380.

Gluttony, remark on, iv. 277-

the symbol of the external sense,

God, an argument for the existence of, from the orderly arrangement of the world, iii. 182 ; the cause of how said to be created in the image and likeness of, 19; concealment from, what meant by, 108; how said to repent of having created man, 347; the first command, the declaration of the existence prehensible, iv. 260 ; judgments piety towards, 265.

God and Lord God, distinction be-

Gods of silver and gold, the formation of, why forbidden, iii. 179.

Gold, symbolically explained, i. 69 ; taken as an emblem, ii. 136.

Golden calf, its destruction by Moses,

Gomorrah, meaning of, ii. 378. Good, threefold division of, i. 305. Good man, mode of life of the, ii. 400. Good men a ransom for the wicked, i.

Gorgon's head, tradition of the, iv.

Governor, the four qualifications of

the perfect, united in Moses, iii.

Grafting, the operation of, described,

Grammar and music, power of the

Grass of the field, explained, i. 58. Greece, the only country which really

produces men, iv. 240 ; calamities

brought on, in the case of Oedipus,

Greek historians, censure of, iii. 1. Greek language, translation of the

Scriptures into the, iii. 80. Green herb of the field, what meant

Groaning, its twofold nature, i. 164. Guardian angels, remark on, iv. 260.

banishment, iv. 92. Gymnosophists, a sect of Indian philosophers, iii. 523.

Habit more powerful than nature, iv.

meaning of, 161 ; her history symbolically explained, 157. Hail, plague of, in Egypt, iii. 27. Hajk, a fabulous patriarch of the

Armenians, iv. 334. Ham, son of Noah, wickedness of, i.

Hamor, meaning of, ii. 93. Handmaidens, symbolical meaning of,

Hands, heavy, of Moses, symbolically

Hannah, meaning of the name, i. 344;

Happy life, steps to a, ii. 248. Happy nature, the, iv. 244. Harlot, On the Wages of a, iii. 249. Harlot, the wages of a, not to be

received in the sacred treasury, ii.

Hasty talkers, condemnation of, iv.

Haughtiness, censure of, iii. 451. Haughty men, remarks on, iv. 247,

Head, seven divisions of the, i. 35. Heathen nations, numerous gods of

the, iii. 148; human sacrifices of

Heaven, (ovpavog) why so called, i.

9 ; how diversified and adorned,

11; its nature incomprehensible,

Heavenly bodies, predictions founded

on the motions of the, i. 16 ; all

things on earth depend on the, 35. Hebrews. See Jews. Heifer, the symbol of the soul, ii. 113. Heir of Divine things, Treatise

Helica swallowed up by the sea, iv.

Helicon, a base Egyptian, iv. 136;

his accusations of the Jews to

Claudius, 137 ; his punishment,

Hell, the life of the wicked the real,

Help-meet, or assistant, i. 81. llemiolius, its ratio, i. 13. Hephaestus, iv. 2.

Heraclitus, citation from, i. 80 ; enigmatical expression of, iv. 50. Herb of the field, explained, i. 174. Herbs and fruits, early production of,

at the creation, reason of, i. 12. Hercules, labours of, iv. 117; why

expelled from the company of the

Argonauts, iii. 534. Hercules and Eurystheus, iii. 532. Heretical teachers,remarks on, iv. 260. Heretics, axioms regarding, iv. 252. Herod the king, iv. 66. Heroes, or demigods, iii. 529.

Heroopolis, a city of Egypt, ii. 506.

Heshbon, meaning of, i. 169.

Hesiod, his opinions concerning the

Hierosolyma. See Jerusalem.

High priest, of a nature bordering on garments of the, symbolically ex-

Hippocrates, his seven ages of man,

Hippopotami, iii. 476.

Hittites, iv. 424.

Hoary head, how differing from the

Homicides, the law respecting, ii. 205.

Honey, why forbidden to be mixed with any offering, iii. 235.

Hoof, parting of the, its symbolical meaning, iii. 381.

Hope, the beginning of participation in all good things, ii. 398 ; its

Hope, the siuter of Moses so called figuratively, ii. 369.

Horse, the passions compared to a, i.

Horse-breeding, symbolical meaning of the Mosaic prohibition of, i. 395.

Horseman, symbolically explained, i.

Horseman and rider, how distin-

Hosea, meaning of, ii. 262 ; his name changed to Joshua, 262.

Hospitality, duties of, cheerfully rendered by the wise man, ii. 418.

Housebreakers, punishment of, iii. 365.

Human affairs, their unstable con-

Human dispositions, three classes of,

Human happiness and unhappiness, in what they consist, ii. '-?85.

Human voice ascribed to the serpent,

Humanity, On, iii. 423.

Humanity strongly inculcated in the laws of Moses, iii. 423.

Humiliation, two kinds of, iv. 434. Humility, praise of, iv. 266. Husband, symbolical meaning of, i.

Husbandman, who so called, i. 379. Husbandry of the soul, i. 381. Hymns among the Therapeutas, iv. 18. Hypocrites, every city full of, ii. 277. Hyssop, its use among the Therapeuta,

Ibis, the, worshipped by the Egyptians, iv. 3. Ideas brought forth by the mind,

divided into male and female, i.

Idolators, gross folly of, iv. 2. Idolatry, folly and wickedness of, iii.

Imagination, the brother of appetite,

Immortality of the mind, proofs of

Impious men, remarks on, iv. 242. Impossible things, iv. 244. Incense, altar of, ii. 138 ; offering of,

Incestuous custom of the Persians, iii.

Incorruptibility of the World,

Treatise on the, iv. 21. Indian philosophers. See Gymnoso-

phists. Industrious people, remarks on, iv.

Inequality, the cause of all evil, iv. 16. Infants, exposure of, forbidden, iii.

Inheritance, the divine law of, iii.

Initiations into heathen mysteries,

Inspiration and prophecy, ii. 146. Instability accounted for, iv. 254. Instruction, On meeting for the

sake of receiving, ii. 157. Instruction, love of, iv. 246. Intemperance, evils of, ii. 465.

Ion, the tragic writer, cited, iii. 535.

Isaac, birth of, ii. 264 ; symbolically explained, i. 101 ; why he had only one wife, ii. 164 ; offering of,

Isaiah, citation from, iv. 373.

Ishmael, iv. 435; meaning of, ii.

Isidorus, an Alexandrian demagogue, iv. 65 ; his accusations of Flaccus, 89 ; his charges against the Jews,

Israel, a name given to Jacob, ii. 87,

Israelites. See Jews.

Issachar, meaning of, i. 443 ; symbolically explained, i. 73.

Jacob, meaning of the name, i. Ill; flight of, from Laban the Syrian, symbolically explained, i. Ill ; ii. his name changed to Israel, ii. 87, blessing bestowed on, iv. 279.

Jacob and Esau, ii. 144.

Jamnia, altar set up at, and destroy-

Janis, meaning of, i. 300.

Japhet. conduct of, i. 95 ; countries peopled by him, iv. 404.

Jason and the Argonauts, iii. 537.

Jebusites, iv. 424.

Jeremiah, the prophet, i. 187.

Jerusalem, the city of God, ii. 387.

Jesein, meaning of, i. 299.

Jews, the, the most God-loving of all nations, ii. 416; naturally friendly to all who are peaceful in their intentions, iii. 409 ; journey of, into and from Egypt, iv. 212 ; their constitution established by the laws of Moses, 214 ; their number in Egypt, 70 ; their safety under Augustus, 134 ; under Tiberius, the reception of their ambassadors,

Jews of Alexandria, persecution of the, in the time of Caligula, iv. 65;

TNDEX.

their synagogues broken open, 70 ; they are deprived of their civil rights, and declared aliens, 72 ; their houses plundered, 73 ; many of them, with their wives and children, burnt, torn to pieces, or otherwise put to death, 74 ; their elders arrested and scourged, 76 ; their houses searched for arms, 79 ; forced to eat swine's flesh, 81 ; relieved by the interposition of Agrippa, 82; Flaccus, their oppressor, seized during the feast of tabernacles, 84 ; their pious joy and thanksgiving, 86.

Jews of Palestine and the neighbouring countries, their great number, strength, and courage, iv. 148; their remonstrances against the threatened profanation of the Temple, 151.

John of Damascus, fragments of the works of Philo preserved by, iv.

Joseph, On the Life oF,ii. 453.

Joseph, his temptation, symbolical meaning of, i. 170 ; symbolical meaning of the name, ii. 255 ; his name in Egypt, 255.

Joseph's coat of many colours, symbolical meaning of, ii. 338.

Joshua, meaning of, ii. 2G2 ; friendship of Moses for him, iii. 424 ; becomes his successor, 427.

Jother, interpretation of, ii. 258.

Jothor, an opponent of Moses, i. 460.

Joy of the foolish, ii. 272.

Juhal, meaning of, i. 304.

Judcea, great populousness of, iv. 1 43 ; courage and spirit of the people,

Judah, meaning of, i. 443; symbolically explained, i. 73.

Judas symbolically explained, ii. 350.

•Ju'l'je, the office and character of a,

Judgment, the last, iv. 243.

Julia Augusta, her offerings to the temple of Jerusalem, iv. 169.

Jupiter, Bacchus preserved by, iii,

Jupiter, the planet, placed above the

Justice, praise of, iv. 263 ; the Scythians famed for, 5 ; symbolically represented by the river Euphrates,

Kadmonites, iv. 424.

Keepers of sheep, how distinguished from shepherds, i. 386.

Keepers of the temple, their sedition its punishment, 134.

Kenezites, iv. 424.

Kidnappers, law concerning, iii. 358.

King, a general name for those who excel, ii. 268 ; proper conduct of a, iv. 274 ; the real, is the virtuous who is perfect master of his art,

Kings, why called shepherds of the people, ii. 453 ; conquered by Abraham, symbolical meaning of, i. 474 ; overthrow of several, enumerated, ii. 480.

Kiss, the false money of friendship,

Kite, worshipped by the Egyptians,

Knowledge, the eyes and ears of the

Knowledge of good and evil, tree of,

Laban the Syrian, flight of Jacob from, symbolically explained, i.

Lamech, meaning of, i. 295 ,• his two wives, 302; his offence greater than

Labour the nurse of virtue, i. 214.

Lacedajmonian boy, fortitude of a, iii.

Lacedtemonians, laws of the, iii. 517.

Ladder, Jacob's, symbolically ex-

Lamb not to be seethed in its mother's

Lampo, an Alexandrian demagogue, iv. 65; his dishonest conduct, 87.

Land, how separated from chaos, i. 10; how adorned, 10; the fruits of the, only partially the produce of man's labour, iii. 433.

Land-marks, not to be removed, iii.

Language, one common, fabulously attributed to animals, ii. 2.

Languages, On the Confusion of, ii.

Last day, remark on the, iv. 270.

Laughter. See Isaac.

Laver, brazen, of the tabernacle, iii.

Law, On the Unwritten, ii. 396.

Law, delivery of the, iii. 146 ; the two tables, 147; expressions of the, to be taken in an allegorical sense, i. 170; nothing to be added to or taken from it, iii. 390; to be written out by each magistrate, 394.

Laws of Moses, why given not in cities, but in the desert, iii. 137 ; ishments annexed to the violation of them, 174; their venerable and godlike character, 77 ; honoured by other nations besides the Jews, 79 ; their translation into Greek, 80 ; why without initiations and mysteries, 242; persons excluded from the sacred assembly, 244.

Leah, meaning of, ii. 75 ; a woman endowed with all virtue, 64 ; typifies the rational faculties of the soul, ii.

Leaven, why forbidden to be mixed with any offering, iii. 236.

Leavened bread, why forbidden to be

Lepidus, his intercession with Caligula in favour of Flaccus, iv. 92 ; is himself in danger, 97.

Leprosy, directions concerning, figuratively explained, i. 245, 367.

Levi symbolically explained, i. 73;

Levi, tribe of, its pious zeal, iii. 109.

Levites, the ransom of the rest of the

cerning them, i. 257; cities of the,

Levitical cities, i. 238.

Liberation of the slave, symbolical meaning of the directions for the,

Liberty, praise of, iii. 536.

Libya, kingdoms of, i. 376.

Lice, plague of, in Egypt, iii. 24.

Life, three kinds of, ii. 102.

Life, tree of, why placed in the centre of Paradise, i. 66; eating of, the

Light in the dwellings of the Israelites, symbolically explained, ii. 317.

Lightning, plague of, in Egypt; iii. 26.

Lights in the sacred candlesticks, why to be constantly kept burning, iii.

Lion, worshipped by the Egvptians,

Living and the dead, the, symbolical

Loaves, on the sacred table, symbolical meaning of, iii. 213.

Locusts, plague of, in Egypt, iii. 27.

Logeum of the high priest, iii. 97; its use and meaning, 1 00.

Lord, and master, different meanings

Lot, his flight from Sodom, iv. 278.

Lot and his daughters, symbolically

Love, genuine, and vulgar, iv. 13, 14.

Lowly-minded people, remarks on,

Lucifer, motion of the planet, i. 180.

Luxurious life inimical to virtue, ii.

Luxury, indulgence in, i. 498; cen-

Lycurgus, laws of, iii. 517.

Lysimachus, iii. 534.

Macedonians, fall of the, ii. 480.

Machir, the son of Manasseh, ii. 165.

Macro, the successor of Sejanus, iv. 63; his protection of Caius Caligula

his endeavours to instruct him, 109; is put to death by Caligula, 64, 112.

Madian. See Midian.

Madiensans, their hostility to the Hebrews, iii. 420.

Madness a greater evil than death, i.

Magi, a company of virtuous and honourable men, iii. 522.

Magical art, greatly esteemed by the Persians, iii. 328.

Magicians of Egypt confounded by Moses and Aaron, iii. 21.

Magistrates, Treatise on the Creation of, iii. 392.

Magnet, attraction of wire by the, iii.

Maltese dogs, their exceeding tameness and affection, iii. 476.

Mamre, symbolical meaning of, ii. 80.

Man, meaning of the term in the writings of Moses, i. 262 ; creation of, 18 ; made in the image and likeness of God, 19 ; this phrase tion, why ascribed to several creators, i. 20; why the last work in the creation of the world, 22 ; not formed of dust alone, iv. 248 ; the first, his beauty both of soul and woman the cause of his fall, 45 ; expelled from Paradise, 46 ; not now as at first created, 39 ; his original excellence, 40; our relationship to the first man, 43; fall of, 120; in what respects inferior to some animals, ii. 450; how superior to the rest of the animal creation, i. 351 ; the growth of, in periods of seven years, 30; verses of Solon, 31 ; opinion of Hippocrates, 31 ; character impressed on, meaning of; 133; made in the image of God, explained, iv. 210; the factitious, and the man modelled after the image of God, i. 65 ; the perfect,

Man and woman, symbolical of the mind and the external sensations, i.

Manasseh, sons of, ii. 166. Manasses, blessing of, by Jacob,i. 131. Mandragora, iv. 10. Manius Maximus, governor of Egypt,

Manna, meaning of, i. 153; heavenly

not gathered on the Sabbath, 46. Marah, meaning of, ii. 191; the law

why given there, 190; the bitter

Marriage, restrictions of the Mosaic

law regarding, iii. 306. Marriage of the high priest, regulations for the, iii. 198; of the inferior

priests, 199. Mars, the planet, placed above the

Mars, character of, assumed by Ca- Master, no mortal absolutely so of

anything whatever, i. 195; a severe,

the best for unruly servants, iv. 274. Master and Lord, different meanings

Matter, disquisition on, iv. 211. Measures of the ark, iv. 343. Medical science, remark on, iv. 246. Mehel, meaning of, i. 301. Melchisedek, meaning of, i. 128. Memphis, in Egypt, iii. 26. Men, races of, twofold, i. 60. Men-women, censure of, iii. 244. Men-women and women-men, iii. 417. Merchants and dealers, laws for, iii.

Mercury, the planet, placed below

Mercury, character of, assumed by

Caligula, iv. 120. Meshech, meaning of, ii. 101. Mesopotamia, the sacrifice of children

not practised in, ii. 434; symbolical

meaning of, 204. Methusaleh, iv. 327 ; meaning of, i.

Midian, symbolical meaning of, ii. 13,

Milcah, meaning of, ii. 166. Migration of Abraham, On the, ii.

Military service, who exempted from, and why, iii. 417; humane regulations of Moses, 4.

Milk, a bounteous gift, iii. 442.

Miltiades exhibits game-cocks to his army as examples of courage, iii. 535.

Mind, the, the same to the soul as the eye to the body, i. 14; the needs of each, 14; likeness of man to his Maker to be found in the mind, 20 ; its nature incomprehen-

Mind and outward senses, the champions of each, iii. 246.

Minerva compared to the number

Minotaur, story of the, iii. 314.

Mischief, designers of, remark on, iv.

Mitre of the high priest, ii. 66; iii. 97.

Mixed multitude which accompanied the Israelites from Egypt, iii. 33.

Mixture distinguished from confusion,

Moab, fire in, symbolical meaning of,

Mob, domination of the, the greatest

Moderation, praise of, iii. 415.

Monakchy, Treatise on, iii. 1 77.

Money, eager search for, iii. 521.

Monkish manuscript, fragments from Philo, preserved in a, iv. 257.

Monsters, iii. 315.

Month, notion of a, the number 30 derived from the, i. 16.

Moon, the, placed close to the air, and below the sun, ii. 137.

Morning and evening, creation of, i. 8.

Moses, On the Life of, iii. 1.

Moses, birth of, iii. 2 ; is exposed on the bank of the river, 3; saved by the daughter of Pharaoh, 4; adopted temperance and fortitude, 7 ; his sympathy with his brethren, 10; slays an Egyptian taskmaster, 11 ; is obliged to flee to Arabia, 12; rescues the daughters of Jethro, 13; his marriage, 14; the burning bush,

16 ; the allegory explained, 1G; signs and tokens, 18; returns to Egypt, 20 ; Pharaoh refuses to let the children of Israel go, 20 ; Moses' rod, 21; the plagues of Egypt, 22; the Israelites driven out, 31 ; Moses is elected their leader, 33 ; his disregard of riches, 34; Pharaoh pursues the Israelites, 37; murmurings of the people, 38 ; their passage of the Red Sea, 40; the bitter waters made sweet, 41 ; famine, 43; the gift of manna, 45 ; the Sabbath ascertained by the double supply ses procures water from the rock, 47; the Moabites defeated, 49; spies sent to view the land of Canaan, 49; their report disheartens the people, 53; Moses turns aside from the Edomites, 54; the Israelites defeated by the Canaanites, 56; victory of the Israelites, 57; they defeat Sihon, king of the Amorites, has, 67; the war against the Moabites, 68; conduct of Moses as a lawgiver, 76; excellence of his method of setting forth his laws, 84; his actions as a chief priest, 88; divinely instructed to build the tabernacle, 90; selects his brother Aaron for high priest, 103; the golden calf, 107; plot against Moses, 1 1 1 ; his character as a prophet, 114; examples of his prophecies, laws, ^30, et seq.; the interpreter of the will of God, 468; the meekest of men, 474 ; his admirable method of setting forth his laws, i. 1 ; his exordium, 1 ; his learning, 2; his description of the creation, 3; iv. 25; five lessons taught therein, i. 51.

Moses, spirit of, imparted to the seventy elders, i. 334.

Moses, tent of, symbolically consi-

Motions, seven in number, i. 36.

Mourning, regulations respecting, iii.

Mouth, Plato's remark on the, i. 35. Multitude, the, likened to a eunuch,

ii. 466; the mixed multitude which

accompanied the Israelites from

Murder, the commandment against,

Murder of their families and themselves practised by the Jews in

great extremities, iv. 152. Murrain of beasts, plague of, in

Music, power of the number 7 in, i.

Music, heavenly, what, iv. 410. Music and musical instruments, i. 310. Mysteries, sacred, not to be spoken

of to the uninitiated, iv. 245.

Nachor, meaning of, ii. 166 ; his two

Nakedness, symbolical meaning of, i.

Names in Holy Scripture, On the

Naming of the animals by Adam, iv.

Naphtali, a symbol of peace, ii. 351;

Nature, uselessness of struggles

Navigation, its benefits, iv. 245.

Necessity and fate, not taught by

Nectar and ambrosia, i. 373.

Nests, or rooms, in the ark, iv. 341.

Nile. See Egypt.

Nimrod, a giant and a mighty hunter,

Ninetv-nine, the number, remarks on,

Noah, On the Tilling of the

why he found grace in the sight of the Lord, i. 360 ; a husbandman, edness of his sons, 487 ; his prayers, 513 ; called Deucalion by the YOL. IV. I

Greeks, iii. 461 ; prophecy concerning him, iv. 330.

Noah, the sons of, symbolical meaning of their names, iv. 330.

Nobility, On, iii. 496.

Nobilitv, true, is nobility of mind,

Nocturnal festival of the Therapeutse,

Noeman, meaning of, i. 313.

Number, mystical properties ascribed

Numbers, peifect, ii. 275.

Oak of Sichem, its symbolical mean-

Oaths not to be taken if it can be

avoided, iii. 155 ; oaths and vows

considered, 255. Obulus, the secretary of Caligula, iv.

Ocellus, his opinions regarding the

Offences punished with death by the

Offerer of sacrifice, the, must be pure

both in body and soul, iii. 229. Offerings of Cain and Abel, i. 207. Offerings distinguished from gifts, i.

Ointment, the holy, iii. 104. Old age, remarks on, iv. 244. Olive-branch, the, iv. 372. Olive garden, symbolical meaning of,

Olives, command concerning gather- Olympian contest, iv. 426 ; the only

one there deserves to be called

One hundred, virtue of the number,

One hundred and twenty years as- I

Onomarchus, punishment of the sacri-

Opinion, slavery of men to, ii. 354.

Opposition of the parts of the sacrifices, symbolical meaning of, ii. 134.

Oracles of God, remarks on the, iv.

Oracles and secret ceremonies ridiculed by Caligula, iv. 116.

Outward senses, the, likened to windows, iv. 264 ; typified by Charran,

Ox, the, when not to be muzzled, iii.

Oxen, Pharaoh's dream of the, ex-

Oxen, sheep, and goats, why offered in sacrifice, iii. 211.

Palestine, the Essenes of, iii. 523.

See also Jews. Palm, the symbol of victory, i. 120. Panathenaea, a festival, iii. 535. Pancratium, contest of the, i. 401. Pandora, a poetic appellation of the

Panaetius, the Stoic, embraces the

doctrine of the incorruptibility of

placed in the east, 424 ; its plants

unlike those of modern parks, 45 ;

man expelled from, 46; virtue so

termed metaphorically, 63 ; the

Pardon apt to engender repentance,

Pardon of offences, remark on, iv. 271. Parents, Treatise on the Honour

COMMANDED TO BE PAID TO, iii. 293.

Parents, honour to, the command- 294 ; have the power of life and death over their children, 296 ; the power justified, 298.

Parlhians and Persians, changes in their situation, ii. •!.'!(>.

Pascha. See Passover.

Pasiphae, legend of, iii. 314.

Passions, why compared to beasts and birds, i. 83 ; compared to a horse, 105 ; reason the pilot or charioteer of the, 138.

Passover, the, symbolically explained,

Patience typified by Rebecca, ii. 89.

Peace, a divine blessing, iv. 273; of what nature was that promised to Abraham, ii. 151 ; though unfavourable, more advantageous

Peace and war, directions regarding,

Peg, reason so called symbolically, i.

Peitho, meaning of, ii. 306.

Peithom, meaning of, i. 298.

Peloppnnesus, cities of, swallowed up

Pentecost, day of, iii. 171.

Pentephoe, wife of Pharaoh's chief

People who are governed, remarks

Perfume, symbolical meaning of the directions concerning, ii. 132.

Peripatetics, sect of the, iv. 423.

Perizzites, iv. 424.

Perjury, condemnation of, iv. 256.

Persians, impious marriage custom of

Persians and Parthians, changes in their situation, ii. 480.

Petronius, governor of Syria, ordered to set up a statue of Caligula in the holy of holies, iv. 146; his prudent measures, 149 ; opposition Claudius, 155 ; the project aban-

Peutephres, father-in-law of Joseph,

Phanuel, meaning of, ii. 27-

Pharan, meaning of, iv. 437.

Pharaoh, dreams of, explained, ii. Moses from the presence of, symbolically explained, i. 110; his cruelty to the Hebrews, iii. 9.

Pharos, island of, the laws of Moses

translated there, iii. 81 ; commemorative festival held there, 82. Phavllus, punishment of the sacri- Pheison, a river of Paradise, symbol- Phidias, the statuary, i. 470. Philip, the tetrarch, iv. 66. Philo JudaBUs, an ambassador to Claudius, iv. 140; his account of an interview with the emperor, 176; wife of, her reason for not wearing golden ornaments, 275. Philolaus, his testimony on the nature

Philosophy, the most perfect good of human life, i. 15 ; the royal road, 309; the handmaid of wisdom, ii. 173; why called a science, and not Philomelus, punishment of the sacri- Phinehas, his just anger, iii. 67, 187;

Phison. See Pheison. Phocean sacred war, the, iv. 231. Physicians, various skill of, i. 252. Physicians and cooks, great quarrel

which exists between, ii. 466. Pigeons, the reason of their abundance at Ascalon, iv. 240. Pilate, procurator of Judea, his persecution of the Jews, iv. 164. Pillar erected by Jacob, ii. 342. Pillars, symbolical meaning of, iv.

Pilot, prudent conduct of the, iii. 464. Pindar, citation from, iv. 53. Pitch, why employed in the ark, iv.

Pi the law of Moses regarding, iii.

Place, considerations on, ii. 305. Plagues of Egypt, the, iii. 22. Plain, figurative meaning of, i. 241. Planets, motions of the, i. 180; their

position, ii. 137. Planets and fixed stars arrayed in

seven divisions, i. 34. Plants, considerations on the nature

I

Plants of Paradise, the virtues so

Plato, the sweetest of all writers, iii. 509; his remark on the mouth, i. 35; his description of an entertain-

Pleasure, remark on, iv. 276; symbolized by the serpent, i. 47 ; curses against, 136; life of the man

Pleasures of man more various than those of animals, i. 48.

Pledges, the law of, ii. 311.

Pleiades, band of the, their motions,

Poets, the instructors. of mankind, iii.

Poisoners, punishment of, iii. 328.

Political affairs, their variety, ii. 460.

Polvcrates, tyranny and unhappy fate

Poly pus, its wonderful property, i. 488.

Pomegranates, their emblematic meaning, iii. 196.

Poseidon, iv. 2.

Posidonius, the Stoic, embraces the doctrine of the incorruptibility of

Poverty, remarks on, iv. 281.

Powers, the heavenly, the creation of man attributed to, ii. 38.

Prayer of Noah, iv. 401.

Precept, command, prohibition, and recommendation distinguished , i. 7 6 .

Pregnant animals not to be sacrificed,

Preservation, sacrifice for. See Virtues.

Pride the cause of many other evils,

Priests, On the Rewards ami Honours which belong to the,

Priests, laws relating to the, iii. 191 ; mutilation, 201 ; rewards and honours, 204 ; difficult cases to be referred to their judgment, iii. 401. See High Priest.

Prisoners of war, directions regarding,

Procession, the course of the affairs of life likened to a, ii. 481.

Prohibition, command, recommendation, distinguished, i. 76.

Prophecy, gift of, ii. 146.

Prophet, every good man a, ii. 446; character of Moses as a, iii. 114.

Prophets, false, how to be treated, iii.

Proselytes, regulations respecting, iii.

Prosperity, deceitfulness of, iii. 241.

Protagoras, impious opinion of, i. 294.

Providence, arguments for a, in opposition to the atheists, iv. 222.

Prudence, eulogium of, i. 70; likened

Psonthomphanech, the Egyptian name

Ptolemy Pbiladelphus procures the laws of Moses to be translated into

Ptolemies, fall of the, ii. 480.

Punishments and Rewards, On, iii.

Punishment, remark on, iv. 275; its benefit to the bystanders, iv. 247.

Purification for blood shed in war, why required, iii. 69.

Purifying victims, various kinds of, ii.

Purple (Tropipvpa), emblematic mean-

Pythagoras, saying of, iv. 293.

Pythagoreans, their excellent doctrines, iii. 507; their opinions concerning the world, iv. 24.

Quadrupeds, what are clean, iii. 380. Quails, the supply of, iii, 387. Quaternion, the heavens adorned with

Rachel, meaning of, ii. 163. Raguel-Jother, meaning of, ii. 259. Rain, symbolical meaning of, i. 58. Rainbow. See Bow in the clouds.

Rains, seasonable, iii. 479.

the symbol of speech, ii. 113. Rameses, meaning of, i. 298. Raven, a sign of wickedness, iv. 369. Reason, the pilot or charioteer of the

Rebekkah, Moses' account of her, its

symbolical meaning, i. 317. Recommendation, command, distinguished, i. 76. Refraction alluded to, i. 490. Repentance, On, iii. 453.

produced, iv. 273 ; God propitiated

by, ii. 284; wrongly ascribed to him,

Rephaims, iv. 424. Reproach, caution to avoid, iv. 246. Reptiles, various kinds of, iii. 382. Reptiles with wings, symbolical

Reputation, remark on, iv. 271. Reuben, the symbol of goodness of

disposition, i. 236 ; interpretation of

the name, ii. 257 ; symbolically

Rewards and Punishments, On, iii.

Rewards promised to those who keep

God's commandments, iii. 303. Rhegium, city of, why so called, iv.

Rhine, the river, a boundary of the

Roman empire, iv. 102. Rhodes, island of, said to have risen

from the sea, iv. 53 ; peopled by

Rib, symbolically explained, i. 89 ;

Ring-straked, symbolical meaning of,

River, speech compared to a, ii. 386.

symbolically explained, 68. Rock, the solid, symbolically ex-

Rod of Aaron, changed into a serpent,

Rod of Moses, its change into a serpent, i. 18; symbolically explained,

Roman world, the, its boundaries, iv.

Rome, embassy to, lrom the Jews of Alexandria, iv. 140.

Royal treasures, what, i. 428.

Ruler, the true education of the, is to

Rumah, meaning of, ii. 166.

Sabbath, meaning of, i. 197 ; manna not gathered on the, iii. 46.

Sabbath-breaker, punishment of the,

Sacrifice, On Animals fit for, iii.

Sacrifice, animals fit to be offered in, iii. 21 1 ;those whooffer sacrifice, 229.

Sacrifice of iirst-fruits, how to be

Sacrifices of the law, symbolical meaning of the directions for the, i. 226,

Sacrilege, various punishments of, iv.

Salpaath, case of the daughters of, iii.

Salt, why to be added to every offer-

abstinence from wine, 483.

Sarah, meaning of, the name, i. 1G5; virtue typified by, ii. 163; her handmaiden Hagar, or education,

Sarai, change of her name to Sarah, i.

Sardanapalus, his luxury and intemperance, iii. 385.

Sarmatians and Scythians, iv. 102.

Sarra, or Sarrah, meaning of, ii. 253;

Saturn, the planet, placed above the

Scape-goat, directions respecting the,

Science. See Philosophy.

Scorpion, the, symbolically explained,

Scriptures, explanation of the, at the banquets of the Therapeutse, iv. 17.

Scythians, celebrated for justice, iv. 5;

Scythians and Sarmatians, iv. 102.

Sea, the, how separated from chaos, i. 10; its asserted diminution, iv. 53 ; cities and countries swallowed up by, 58; islands merged, 53; help to commerce afforded by, 245.

Sea-monsters, creation of, i. 17.

Seeking God, remarks on, iv. 269.

Sejanus, an oppressor of the Jews, iv.

Self-conceit, its mischief, iv. 247.

Self-knowledge, cultivation of, recom-

Self-satisfied people, remarks on, iv.

Sensation, five-fold division of, i. 17.

Sensation the middle term, the mind and the external object the ex-

Sensations, the handmaids of pleasure,

Senses, their number, i. 17; things judged by the, seven in number, 36 ; styled the guards of the soul, ii. 5.

Septuagint, the, iii. 81.

Serpent, the, an old poisonous and earth-born reptile, i. 46; spoke to Eve with a human voice, 46 ; iv.

Serpent of Dan distinguished from the serpent that appeared to Eve, i.

Serpent in the wilderness, symbolically explained, i. 104.

Serpent-fighter, a symbolical animal expressing temperance, i. 49.

Servant, the greatest praise of a, iv.

Servant of wisdom, the, is the servant

Servants, kindness to, inculcated, iv.

"273; a severe master the best for

Service of God the surest freedom, ii.

Seven, the number, admirable properits divisions, 27; its essence the foundation of geometry and trigonometry, 29; its sanctity, 29; its perfecting power, 30; the most harmonious of numbers, 32; its nature extends over heaven and earth, 33; grammar and music, 36; further considerations on, 54 ; iii. 264.

Seven ages of man, i. 31.

Seven divisions of the body, i. 35; of

Seven wise men of Greece, iii. 522.

Seven-fold punishment to the slayer of Cain explained, iv. 321.

Seventh day, or Sabbath, why called plained, 55; the commandment re-

Seventh year, enactments regarding

Seventy, the number, ii. 88.

Seventy-five, the number, ii. 88.

Severus, lieutenant-governor of Egypt,

Shamelessness and modesty, i. 96; iv.

Shalpaath. See Salpaath.

Sheaf, festival of the, meaning of the injunction, ii. 357.

Sheaves, Joseph's dream of the, ii.

Shechem, meaning of the name, i. 114;

Sheep, a purifying victim, ii. 285.

Shepherd, why an abomination to the Egyptians, i. 217.

Shepherds and keepers of sheep, how distinguished, i. 386.

Sliew-bread, table of, iii. 96.

Sliinar, meaning of, ii. 1 5.

Shittim, meaning of, ii. 310.

Shoulder, the symbol of labour, i. 143. See Shechem.

Shur, meaning of, ii. 235.

Sichem. See Shechem.

Sicilian strait, how formed, iv. 58.

Sicily, its separation from the Italian mainland, iv. 58.

Sight, the most excellent of all gif's, ii. 429; figuratively represented by

Sihon, king of the Amorites, defeated by the Israelites, iii. 58.

Silanus, Marcus, father-in-law of Caligula, put to death by him, iv.

Silence, to whom proper, ii. 96; appropriate times tor, ii. 390.

Simeon symbolically explained, i. 73.

Sin more to be feared than disease,

Sin-offering. See Victims.

Sins, voluntary and involuntary, iv.

Sirens, song of the, iv. 410.

SLx, the number, the most productive,

Six days of creation, how to be under-

Skins, garments of, iv. 311.

Slave, gentle and humane treatment of the, enjoined by the law of Moses, iii. 274; symbolical meaning of the directions for the liberation

Slaves, possession of, contrary to nature, iv. 16; ordered to be circumcised, 454; law regarding the killing tive, 440; the ministration of, unknown among the Therapeutffij iv. 16; manumitted, iii. 538; description of those attending at banquets,

Slavery, two kinds of, iii. 510.

Sobriety, advantages of, i. 501.

Sodom, meaning of, i. 499.

Sodom, land of, symbolical meaning

Sodomites, cities of the, destruction

of the, ii. 424 ; figurative explana-

Sojourners and foreigners, ii. 162 ; iii.

Soldiers, labours and subordination of,

Solon, laws of, iii. 517 ; his description of the different ages of man, i.

Son, why one only given to Sarah, ii.

Sons and daughters, metaphorically used for reasonings and arts, i. 192.

Sophist, the, his inferiority to the

Sophocles, his CEilipus Tyrannus al-

Soul, the, the habitation of God, iv. essence of the, 263 ; irrational part of the, divided into seven parts, 284 ; the senses, the guards of the, ii. 5 ; its rational and irrational faculties, typified by Leah and Rachel, 163.

Soul or life of man, its essence, iii.

Soul, speech, and external sense, symbolized by a heifer, a ram, and a goat, ii. 113; how regarded by the righteous, and by the wicked,

Souls, demons, and angels, identity of,

Sowing-time and harvest, iv. 384.

Special Laws, Treatise on the, iii.

Speckled and ring-straked, symbolical meaning of, ii. 336.

Speech likened to a garment, ii. 313; evils of unseemly freedom of, 359 ; freedom of, who proper to, 96 ; akin to friendship, 98.

Spirit of God, its temporary abode

Squared pieces of wood, why employed by Noah in building the ark, iv.

Stars, creation of the, i. 15; reasons

to navigators, 34 ; their nature unknown, iii. 178 ; the viceroys of God, 177 ; shine by their own light,

Statesman, On the, or Life of

Statue of Caligula, attempt to set up the, at Jerusalem, iv. 146.

Stealing, the commandment against,

Stephanion, a freedman, the friend of Flaccus, iv. 84.

Stilbon, motion of the planet, i.

Stoic philosophers, their opinion on the creation and destructibility of the world, iv. 23 ; change of opinion of some of them, 34.

Stoning, the punishment of the blasphemer, and the Sabbath-breaker,

Stork, filial piety of the, iii. 162.

Stranger, judgment respecting the, iii.

Strangers not to be elected to situations of authority, iii. 394 ; laws of Moses regarding, 435.

Strife and contention, symbolized by

Study of the holy scriptures, in what manner to be pursued, iv. 253.

Suicide, a practice of the Jews in great extremities, iv. 152.

Sun, its place in the centre of the planets, ii. 137 ; the symbol of the

Sun, the, and other good gifts designed only for the virtuous, iv. 278.

Superstition, the great hindrance to

Suppliants, Treatise on the Vir-

meaning, 432.

Sword, Flaming, On the, i. 175.

Synagogues, Jewish, statues forcibly erected in them, by the populace

Syria, meaning of the name, i. 112.

Tabernacle of testimony symbolically

Tabernacle and the altar, symbolical meaning of,i. 481; described, iii. 90.

Table of shewbread, iii. 96.

Tables, the two, of the Law, nature of their division, iii, 147.

Taming of the passions, iii. 476 ; of wild beatss, 476.

Tantalus, legend of, alluded to, iii.

Tarandus, a fabulous animal among

Tartarus, iii. 491.

Tax collector, cruelty of a, iii. 342.

Temperance, consequences of, ii. 465. symbolical figure of, i. 49.

Temple, the, described, iii. 191 ; why not surrounded by a grove, 192.

Ten Commandments, On the, iii. 136.

Ten, the number, excellent things attributed to, ii. 175.

Terah, meaning of, ii. 302 ; his migration from Charran explained, 303.

Tetrapharmacon, a medicine, its com-

Thalamein, meaning of, i. 299.

her story symbolically explained,

Thank-offering. See Victims.

Theatre, various behaviours of spec-

Theft, law against, iii. 355.

Theocritus, allusion to, i. 361.

Theodorus, surnamed the Atheist, his reply to Lysimachus, iii. 534.

Theognis, proverb from, iii. 450.

Theophrastus, his opinion respecting

Therapeutic, found chiefly in Egypt, nasteries, 7 ; their sacred assemblies, 73 their temperance, 8 ; their raiment, 9 ; their common assemblies, 9 ; their feasts, 15 ; reading the scriptures, 17; hymns, 18; nocturnal festival, 19 ; choruses, in imitation of those led by Moses and Miriam, 19.

Thief, killing of the nocturnal, symbolically explained, i. 115.

Thimna, a concubine, ii. 168.

Thirteen, the number, iv. 462.

Thirty, the number, whence derived,

Thirty-six, the number, why termed by the Pythagoreans agreement,

Thorns and thistles, symbolical mean-

Thoughts of the soul, ii. 141.

Three, the number, the image of a

Three hundred and sixty-five, symbolical meaning of, iv. 328.

Thunderbolts, plague of in Egypt,

Thyestes, accursed food of, iii. 487.

Tiberius, death of, iv. 63 ; designed to put Claudius to death, but dissuaded by Macro, 107.

Tiberius, son of Drusus, death of,

Tigris, a river of Paradise, symbolically explained, i. 68 ; its charac-

Tilling the ground, how it differs from husbandry, i. 379.

Time, its prior existence to that of the world inconsistent with philosophy, i. 7 ; its measure by the stars, 16; the grandson of God,

Titans and giants, fable of the, iv. 405.

Tones, musical, seven in number, i,

Tooth, law regarding the striking out

Tower of Babel, its symbolical mean-

various kinds of, ii. 143.

Translators, the seventy, their labours,

Travelling through the land, symbolical meaning, ii. 91.

Treachery, condemnation of, iii. 400;

Tree of knowledge of good and evil,

Trees, created in full perfection, i. 1 1 ;

reason assigned, 11; of a hostile

city not to be cut down, iii. 409. Triad, the earth adorned with a, i. 17. Triclinia, couches so called, iv. 11. Triptolemus, fable of, iii. 458. Trypho, a Jewish elder, plundered

and scourged, iv. 76. Turtle-dove and pigeon, symbolical

Two hundred, the number, iv. 328. Typhus, an Egyptian god, his emblem,

Uncertain and unknown things, re- Unintentional homicide, punishment

Universe, the, filled with living beings

Unmixed wine, a poison, i. 446. Unwritten Law, On the, ii. 396. Urim and Thummim, symbolical

Ursa major, the constellation, the

guide of mariners, i. 34 ; consists of

Usury, lending on, condemned, ii.

Vain-glory an untameable wild beast,

Variegated texture, symbolically ex-

Venus, the heavenly, iv. ] 3.

Venus, the planet, placed below the

Vesta, the only fixed part of the

Victims, Treatise on, iii. 211.

Victims, why to be whole and entire, and without blemish, iii. 212; the three classes of, 214; symbolical meaning of the mode of sacrifice,

Vine, Joseph's dream of the, ex-

Vineyard of the Lord, ii. 374.

Vineyard, symbolical meaning of, i. 362; why planted by Noah, iv.

Vineyards, not to be gleaned a second

Violation of a virgin, punishment for,

Virtue, remarks on, iv. 271; contemplative and active, i. 66; metaphorically termed a paradise, 63; trees of, 66; typified by Sarah, ii.

Virtue and pleasure, opposition of,

Virtues, Treatise on Three, iii. 4 1 2.

Virtues, the four generic, i. 315.

Virtues, the generic, likened to cities, and the specific to houses, ii. 230.

Virtuous Man, Treatise on the, iii.

Virtuous man, the, a common good

Visions. See Dreams.

Voice of God, explained, ii. 53.

Vow, an offering to God, ii. 344.

Vow, the great, explained, iii. 227.

Wages op a Harlot, On the, iii.

Wages of pleasure, i. 50 ; of a harlot

not to be brought into the sacred

treasury, iii. 249 ; of the poor man,

Walking, how attributed to God, iv.

War, how and when to be put an end

to, iii. 477; exemptions from going

sound of, symbolical meaning of,

Wars, the ordinary causes of, i. 313. Wasps, svvarms of, to fight for the

pious, iii. 478; symbolical meaning

Water, salt and fresh, separated, i. 9. Wavering and cowardly people, re- Wealth, the true, iii. 414. Well, the heavens why likened to a

Wells dug by the patriarchs, why four in number, ii. 295.

Wheat, Pharaoh's vision of the ears

Wicked, friendship of the, remarks

Wicked man, flight of the, i. 107 ; how he conceals himself from God, master, ii. 243 ; his unhappiness, rable life of the, iv. 256 ; his hopes unstable, 265 ; unworthy of freedom of speech, iii. 518 ; cannot be

danger of association with, iv. 247.

Wickedness, likened to ground accursed, i. 27S.

Widow, symbolical meaning of, i.

Widow and orphan, the peculiar care of the just magistrate, iii. 398.

Wife, to be subject to her husband,

Wild beasts, breaking in of, iii. 476.

Wild vine, symbolical meaning of, i.

Window of the ark, what, iv. 368.

Wine, unmixed, its symbolical mean-

Wine and strong drink forbidden to Aaron and the priesthood, i. 479.

Winter, why unknown in Egypt, iii.

Wisdom, three different manners by which it exists among men, ii. 327.

Wise Man made perfect bv Instruction, On the, or Life of

Wise man, the, why desirous of peace and labour, iv. 252 ; more difficult to enslaye than the lion, iii. 515 ; question whether there is really

Wives, choosing, symbolical meaning

Wives and concubines, ii. 162.

Woman, symbolical meaning of, i. of the fall of man, 45 ; why styled a' building, iv. 297 ; said to be only an imperfect male, 255.

Women, why employed in the preparation of the sacred works of the tabernacle, ii. 64 ; law respecting those who behave immodestly, iii.

Word, the divine, iv. 392.

World, Treatise on the Incorruptibility of the, iv. 21.

World, creation of the, as described by Moses, i. 2 ; why six days were occupied therein, 3 ; how the term " six days " is to be understood, 53 ; likened to a great and all-productive plant, i. 417 ; various meanings given to the word, iv.

World, creation of the, remark on, iv. 269 ; the incorporeal, styled the reason of God, i. 6 ; love of the, not reconcilable with the love of

Xanthians, their noble resistance to

Xenophon, his description of an en-

tert;dnment, iv. 13. Xerxes, king of Pesia, his impiety, ii.

Young men and elders, how spoken

Youth, indolent, unhappy fate of, iv.

Zabulon, the symbol of light, ii. 350.

Zeno, fortitude of, iii. 529.

Zillah, meaning of, i. 313.

Zilpah, meaning of, ii. 163.

Zipporah, wife of Moses, i. 1 85.

Zoar, figurative meaning of, ii. 430.

Zodiac, the, whence its name derivsaid to traverse it, 364.

HADDON, BROTHERS, AND CO., PRINTERS, CASTLE STREET, HINSBURY.

BOEN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.

Longfellow's Poetical Works, com-

plete, including The Wayside Inn. Twenty-four page Engravings, by Birket Foster and others, and a new Portrait. ■ ; or, without the illustrations,

Prose Works, complete. Sixteen page Engravings by Birket Foster and others. Loudon's (Mrs.) Entertaining Naturalist. New Edition. Revised by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. With nearly 500 Engravings. Is.

Marryat's Masterman Eeady; or,

The Wreck of the Pacific. 93 Engravings.

Mission ; or, Scenes in Africa. (Written for Young People.) Illustrated by Gilbert and Dalzitl.

Pirate ; and Three Cutters.

New Edition, with a Memoir of the Author. With 20 Steel Engravings, from Drawings by Clarkson Stanfield, B.A. • Privateer's-Man One Hundred Years Ago. Eight Engravings on Steel, ajter Stothard.

■ Settlers in Canada.

Edition. Ten fine Engravings by Gilbert and Dalziel.

Maxwell's Victories of Wellington

and the British Armies. Illustrations on Steel

Michael Angelo and Raphael, their

Lives and Works. By Doi-pa and Quatremere de QurNCT. With 13 highlyfinished Engravings on Steel.

Miller's History of the Anglo-Saxons. Written in a popular style, on the basis of Sharon Turner. Portrait of Alfred, Mop of Saznn Britain, and 12 elaborate Engravings on Steel. Milton's Poetical Works. With a Memoir by James Montgomery, Todd's Verbal Index to all the Poems, and Explanatory Notes. With 120 Engravings by Thompson and otters, from Drawings

Vol. 1. Paradise Lost, complete, with

Memoir, Notes, and Index. Vol. 2. Paradise Regained, and other Poems, with Verbal Index to all the Poems.

Mudie's British Birds. Revised by W. C. L. Martin. Fifty-two Figures and 1 Plates of Eggs. In 2 vols.

■ ; or, u-ith the plates coloured,

Naval and Military Heroes of Great Britain ; or, Calendar of Victory. Being a Record of British Valour and Conquest by Sea and Land, on every day In the year, from the time of William the Conqueror to the Battle of Inkermann. By Major Johns, R.M., and Lieutenant P. H. Nicolas, R.M. Twenty-four Por-

Nicolini's History of the Jesuits:

their Origin, Progress, Doctrines, and Designs. Fine Portraits of Loyola, Laines, Xavier, Borgia, Acquamva, Pire la Chaise, and Pope Ganganelli.

Norway and its Scenery. Comprising Price's Journal, with large Additions, and a Road-Book. Edited by T. Forester. Twenty-two Illustrations.

Paris and its Environs, including

Versailles, St Cloud, and Excursions into the Champagne Districts. An illustrated Handbook for Travellers. Edited by T. Forester. Twenty-eight beautful Engravings.

Petrarch's Sonnets, and other Poems.

Translated into English Verse. By various hands. With a Life of the Poet, by Thomas Campbell. With 16 Engravings.

Pickering's History of the Races of

Man, with an Analytical Synopsis of the Natural History of Man. By Dr. Hall. Illustrated by numerous Portraits.

; or, with the plates coloured.

V An excellent Edition of a work originally published at 31. 3s. by the American Government.

Pictorial Handbook of London. Comprising its Antiquities, Architecture, Arts, Manufactures, Trade, Institutions, Exhibitions, Suburbs, &c. Two hundred and five Engravings, and a large Map, by Dowry.

This volume contains above 900 pages, and is undoubtedly the cheapest fiveshilling volume ever produced.

Pictorial Handbook of Modern Geography, on a Popular Plan. 3s. 6<Z. Illustrated by 150 Engravings andbl Maps. 6s.

; or, with the maps coloured.

Two large Editions of this volume have been sold. The present New Edition is corrected and improved ; and, besides Introducing the recent Censuses of England and other countries, records the changes which have taken place In Italy and America.

Pope's Poetical Works. Edited by Robert Caruuthers. Numerous Engravings. 2 vols.

Homer's Iliad. With Introduction and Notes by J. S. Watson, M.A. Illustrated by the entire Series of Flaxman's Designs, beautifully engraved by Moses (in the full Hvo. size).

Homer's Odyssey, Hymns,

&c, by other translators, including Chapman, and Introduction and Notes by J. S. Watson, M.A. Flaxman's Designs beau- \ tifully tngraved by Mote*.

Pope's Life, Including many of his

; Letters. By Robebt Cabbuthebs. New Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrations.

The preceding 5 vols, make a complete and elegant edition of J'ope's loetical Works and Translations for 2as.

Pottery and Porcelain, and other Objects of Vertu (a Guide to the Knowledge of). To which is added an Engraved List of all the known Marks and Monograms. By Hekby G. Bohn. Numerous Engraving*.

Prout's (Father) Reliques. New Edition, revised and largely augmented. Twenty-one spirited Etchings by Maclise. Two volumes in one. Is. Hd.

Recreations in Shooting. By " Craven." New Edition, revised and enlarged. 62 Engravings on Wood, after Harvey, and 9 Engravings on Steel, chiefly after A. Cooper, fi.A.

Pleading's History and Descriptions

of Wines, Ancient and Modern. Twenty beautiful Woodcuts.

Rennie's Insect Architecture, xew Edition. Revised by the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A.

Robinson Crusoe. With Illustrations by Stothakd and Harvey. Twelve beautiful Engravings on Steel, a,nd 74 on Wood.

; or, without the Steel illustra-

The prettiest Edition extant.

R,ome in the Nineteenth Century. New Edition. Revised by the Author. Illustrated by 34 fine Steel Engravings.

. Southey's Life of Nelson. With Additional Notes. Illustrated with 64 Engravings. Starling's fMiss) Noble Deeds of

Women ; or. Examples of Female Courage, Fortitude, and Virtu?. Fourteen beautiful Illustrations.

Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of

Athens, and other Monuments of Greece. Illustrated in IX Steel Plates, and wamerous Woodcuts.

Tales of the Genii ; or, the Delightful

Lessons of Horam. Numerous Woodcuts, and 8 Steel Engravings, after Siothard.

Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. Translated into English Spenserian Verse, with a Life of the Author. By J. H. Wiffen. Eight Engravings on Steel, and 24 on Wood, by Thurston.

Walker's Manly Exercises. Containing Skating, Riding, Driving, Hunting, Shooting, Sailing, Rowing, Swimming, kc. .New Edition, revised by " Craven." Forty-four Steel Flatcs, and numerous Woodcuts.

Walton's Complete Angler. Edited by Edward Jkssu, Esq. To which is added an Account of Fishing Stations, &c, gravings.

; or, with 26 additional page

Illust7-ations on Steel, Is. 6d.

Wellington, Life of. By An Old Soldier, from the materials of Maxwell. Eighteen Engravings.

White's Natural History of Selborue. With Notes by Sir William Jardine and Edward Jesse, Esq. Illustrated by 40 highly-finished Engravings.

; or, with the plates coloured.

Young, The, Lady's Book. A Manual of Elegant Recreations, Arts, Sciences, and Accomplishments; including Geology, Mineralogy, Coucliology, Botany, Entomology, Ornithology, Costume, Embroidery, the Escritoire, Archery, Riding, Music (instrumemal and vocal), Dancing, Exercises, Painting, Photography, &c *c. Edited by distinguished Proiessors. Twelve Hundred Woodcut Illustrations, and several fine Engravings on Steel. 7s. 6(2.

XL.

Bohn's Classical Library.

5s. per Volume, excepting those marked otherwise.

JEschylua. Literally Translated into English Prose by an Oxonian. 3s.

Appendix to. Containing

the New Readings given in Hermann's posthumous Edition of . Est hylus. By

Ammianus Marcellinus. History of Rome from Constantius to Valens. Translated by C. D. Yonge, B.A. Double volume, 7s. Sd.

Apuleins, the Golden Ass ; Death of Socrates; Florida; and Discourse on Magic. To which is added a Metrical Version of Cupid and Psyche ; and Mrs. Tlghe's Psyche. Frontispiece.

S0B1T8 VARIOUS LIBRARim.

Aristophanes' Comedies. Literally

Translated, with -Notes and Extracts from Ftere's and other Metrical Versions, by Vol. l. Acharnians, Knights, Clonds,

Wasps, Peace, and Birds. Vol. 2. Lysistrata, Thesmophcriazasre, Frogs, Ecclesiazusa), and Plutus.

Aristotle's Ethics. Literally Translated by Archdeacon Bbowne, late Classical Professor of King's College.

■ Politics and Economics.

Translated by E. Wauobc, M.A.

Metaphysics. Literally Translated, with Notes, Analysis, Examination Questions, and Index, by the Rev. John H. M'Mahoh, M A., and Gold Medallist ia Metaphysics, T.C.D.

History of Animals. In Ten

Books. Translated, with Notes and index, by Richard Cbksswell, M.A.

Organon ; or, Logical Treatises. With Notes. Ac. by 0. V. Owen, M.A.

Rhetoric and Poetics. Lite-

rally Translated, with Examination Qnestions and Notes, by an Oxonian.

Atheneeus. The Deipnosophists ; or, the Banquet of the Learned. Translated

Caesar. Complete, with the Alexandrian, African, and Spanish Wars. Literally Translated, with Notes.

Catullus, Tibullus, and the Vigil of Venus. A Literal Prose Translation. To which are added Metrical Versions by Lamb, Grainger, and others. Frontispiece.

Cicero's Orations. Literally Trans-

Vol. 1. Contains the Orations against Verree, &c. Portrait.

VoL 2. Catiline, Archias, Agrarian J.aw, Babirius, Murena, Sylla, &c.

Vol. 3. Orations for his House, Plancius, Sextlus, Coellus, Milo, Ligarius, Ac.

Vol. 4. Miscellaneous Orations, and Rhetorical Works; with General Index to the four volumes.

■ on the Nature of the Gods,

Divination, Fate, Laws, a Republic, ifcc. Translated by C. D. Yonge, B.A., and F. Basham.

Academics, De Finibus, and

Tusculau Questions. By C. I). Yonge, B.A. With Sketch of the Greek Philosophy.

Offices, Old Age, Friendship,

Sclpio's l>ream, Paradoxes, &c Literally Translated, by R. Edmonds. 3*. 6d.

Cicero on Oratory and Orators. By

Demosthenes' Orations. Translated, with Notes, by C. Rann Kennedy. In 5 Volumes. Vol. 1. The Olynthiac. Philippic, and

other Public Orations. 3s. 6d. Vol. 2. On the Crown and on the Embassy. Vol. 3. Against Leptlnes, Midias, An-

diotrion, and Aristccrates. Vol. 4. Private and other Orations. VoL 6. Miscellaneous Orations.

Dictionary of Latin Quotations. Including Proverbs, Maxims, Mottoes, Lrtw Terms, and Phrases; and a Collection of above 500 Greek Quotations. With all the quantities marked, & English Translations.

■ , with Index Verborum. 6s.

Index Verborum only. Is.

Diogenes Laertius. Lives and Opinions of the Ancient Philosophers. Translated, with Notes, by C. D. Yonge.

Euripides. Literally Translated. 2 vols. Vol. 1. Hecuba, Orestes, Medea, Hippolytus, Alcestls, Bacchae, Heraclida?, Ipbigenia in Aulide, and Iphigenia in Tauris Vol. 2. Hercules Purens, Troades, Ion, Andromache, Suppliants, Helen, Electra, Cyclops, Rhesus.

Greek Anthology. Literally Translated. Wiih Metrical Versions by various Authors.

Greek Romances of Heliodoru3,

Longus, and Achilles Tatius. Herodotus. A New and Literal Translation, by Henry Cary, M.A., of Worcester College, Oxford.

Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis.

Literally Translated, with Notes, by J. Banks, M.A.

Homer's Iliad. Literally Translated, by an Oxonian.

Odyssey, Hymns, &c. Literally Translated, by an Oxonian.

Horace. Literally Translated, by Smart. Carefully revised by an Oxonian.

Justin, Cornelius Nepos, and Eutropius. Literally Translated, with Notes and Index, by J. S. Watson, M.A. Juvenal, Persius, Sulpicia, and Lu- Metrical Version by Gilford. Frontispiece. Livy. A new and Literal Translation. By Dr. Spillan and others. In 4 vols. Vol 1. Contains Books 1—8.

Lucan's Pharsalia. Translated, with

Notes, by H. T. Riley. Lucretius. Literally Translated, with Notes, by the Rev. J. S. Watson, M.A. And the Metrical Version by J. M. Good. Martial's Epigrams, complete. Literally Translated. Each accompanied by one or more Verse Translations selected from the Works of English Poets, and other sources. With a copious Index. Ovid's Works, complete. Literally Translated. 3 vols. Vol. 1. Fasti, Tristia, Epistles, &c. Vol. 2. Metamorphoses. Vol. 3. Heroides, Art of Love, &c. Pindar. Literally Translated, by Dawson W. Tr/BNER, and the Metrical Version by Abbaham Moobe. Plato's Works. Translated by the Rev. H. Cakt and others. In 6 vols. Vol. 1. The Apology of Socrates, Crito, Phaedo, Gorgias, Protagoras, Phsedrus, Thesetetus, Euthyphron, Lysis. Vol. 2. The Republic, Timsus, &Critias. Vol. 3. Meno, Euthydemus, The Sophist, Statesman, Cratylus, Parmenides, and the Banquet. Vol. 4. Phllebus, Charmides, Laches, The Two Alcibiades, and Ten other Dialogues. Vol. 6. The Laws.

Vol. 6. The Doubtful Works. With General Index.

Dialogues, an Analysis and

Index to. With References to the Translation in Bonn's Classical Library. By Dr. Dat. [In preparation.

Plautus's Comedies. Literally Translated, with Notes, by H. T. Riley, B.A. Pliny's Natural History. Translated, with Copious Notes, by the late John

Propertius, Petronius, and Johannes

Secundus. Literally Translated, and accompanied by Poetical Versions, from various sonrces.

Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory.

Ltteraliy Translated, with Notes, &c, by

Sallust, Floru3, and Velleius Paterculus. With Copious Notes, Biographical Notices, and Index, by J. S. Watson.

Sophocles. The Oiford Translation

revised. Standard Library Atlas of Classical

Geography. Twenty-two large coloured Maps according to the latest authorities. With a complete Index (accentuated), giving the latitude and longitude of every place named in the Maps. Imp. 8vo. 7s. 6d

Strabo's Geography. Translated, with Copious Notes, by W, Falconer, M.A., and H. C. Hamilton, Esq. With Index, giving the Ancient and Modern Namea. In 3 vols.

Suetonius' Lives of the Twelve

Ca?sars, and other Works. Thomson's Translation, revised, with Notes, by T. Fobesteb.

Tacitus. Literally Translated, with Notes. In 2 vols. Vol. 1. The Annals. Vol. 2. The History, Germanla, Agricola, &c. With Index.

Terence and Phaedrus. By H. T. Riley, B.A.

Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, and Tyrtseus. By J. Banks, M.A. With the Metrical Versions of Chapman.

The Thoughts of the Emperor M.

Aurelius Antoninus. Translated by Geo.

Thucydides. Literally Translated by

Virgil. Literally Translated by Davidson. New Edition, carefully revised.

Xenophon's Works. In 3 Vols.

Vol. 1. The Anabasis and Memorabilia. Translated, with Notes, by J. S. Watson, M.A. And a Geographical Commentary, by W. F. Ainswoeth, F.SJL,

Vol. 2. Cyropa?dia and Hellenics. By Dale.

Vol. 3. The Minor Works. By J. S. Watson, M.A.

XII.

Bolm's Scientific Library.

5s. per Volume, excepting

Agassiz and Gould's Comparative

Physiology. Enlarged by Dr Wright. Upwards of 400 Engravings. Bacon's Novum Organum and Advancement of Learning. Complete, with Notes, by J. Devfv, M.A.

Blair's Chronological Tables, Revised

and Enlarged. Comprehending the Chronology and History of the World, from

those marked otherwise.

tne earliest times. By J. Willoughby Rosse. Double Volume. 10s.; or, half-

Index of Dates. Comprehending the principal Facts in the Chronology and History of the World, from the earliest to the present time, alphabetically arranged. By J. W. Rosse. Double volume, 10s. ; or, half-bound, 10s. Cd.

B0E2TS VARIOUS LIBRARIES.

Boilers Manual of Technical Analysis. A Guide for the Testing of Natural and Artificial Substances. By B. H. Paul. 100 Wood Engravings.

BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. —

■ Bell on the Hand. Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design. Seventh Edition Revised.

■ Xirby on the History, Habits,

and Instincts of Animals. Edited, with Notes, by T. Rymeb Jones. Numerous Engravings,many of which are additional.

— Kidd on the Adaptation of

External Nature to the Physical Condition

Whewell's Astronomy and

General Physics, considered with reference to Natural Theology. 3*. 6d.

Chalmers on the Adaptation

of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man. 6*.

Pront's Treatise on Chemis-

try, Meteorology, and Digestion. Edited by Dr. J. W. Griffith.

Buckland's Geology and

- '- Eoget's Animal and Vegetable Physiology. Illustrated. In 2 vols. 6s. each.

Carpenter's (Dr. W. B.) Zoology. A

Systematic View of the Structure, Habits, Instincts, and Uses, of the principal Families of the Animal Kingdom, and of the chief forms of Fossil Remains. New edition, revised to the present time, under arrangement with the Author, by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. Illustrated with many hundred fine Wood Engravings. In 2 vols. 6s. each.

Mechanical Philosophy, Astronomy, and Horology. A Popular Exposition. 183 Illustrations.

■ Vegetable Physiology and

Systematic Botany. A complete Introduction to the Knowledge of Plants. New Edition, revised, under arrangement with, the Author, by E. Lankester, M.D., &c. Several hundred Illustrations on Wood. 6s.

« Animal Physiology. New

Edition, thoroughly revised, and in part re-written by the Author. Upwards of 300 capital Illustrations. 6s.

Chess Congress of 1862. A Collection of the Games played, and a Selection of the Problems sent in for the Competition. Edited by J. L3wenthal, Manager. With an Account of the Proceedings, and a Memoir of the British Chess Association,

Chevreul on Colour. Containing the Principles of Harmony and Contrast of

Colours, and their application to the Arts. Translated from the French by Charles Martel. Only complete Edition. Several Plates. Or, with an additional series of

Clark's (Hugh) Introduction to

Heraldry. With nearly 1000 Illustrations. ISth Edition. Revised and enlarged by J. R. Planch* , Rouge Croix. Or, with all the Illustrations coloured, 15s.

Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences. By G. H. Lewes.

Ennemoser's History of Magic.

Translated by William Howrrr. With an Appendix of the mest remarkable and best authenticated Stories of Apparitions, Dreams, Table-Turning, and Spirit-Rap-

Handbook of Domestic Medicine. Popularly arranged. By Dr. Henry Da vies. 700 pages. With complete Index.

Handbook of Games. By various Amateurs and Professors. Comprising treatises on all the principal Games of chance, skill, and manual dexterity. In all, above 40 games (the Whist, Draughts, and Billiards being especially comprehensive). Edited by H. G. Bom*. IUw trated by numerous Diagrams.

Hogg'3 (Jabez) Elements of Experimental and Natural Philosophy. Containing Mechanics, Pneumatics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Acoustics, Optics, Caloric, Electricity, Voltaism, and Magnetism. New Edition, enlarged. Upwards of 400 Woodcuts.

Hind's Introduction to Astronomy.

With a Vocabulary, containing an Explanation of all the Terms in present use. New Edition, enlarged. Numerous En-

Humboldt's Cosmos ; or Sketch of a

Physical Description of the Universe. Translated by E. C. Orrf and W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. Fine Portrait. In five vols. 3s. ed. each ; excepting Vol. V„ 5s. *»* In this edition the notes are placed beneath the text, Humboldt's analytical Summaries and the passages hitherto suppressed are included, and new and comprehensive Indices are added.

Travels in America. In 3 vols.

» Views of Nature ; or, Contemplations of the Sublime Phenomena of Creation. Translated by E. C. OttI and H. G. Bohn. A faoslmile letter from the Author to the Publisher ; translations of the quotations, and a complete Index.

Humphrey's Coin Collector's Manual. A popular Introduction to the Study of Coins. Highly finished Engravings. In 2 vols.

A CATALOGUE 01

Hunt's (Bobert) Poetry of Science ;

or, Studies of the Physical Phenomena of Nature. By Professor Hum. JSeW Edition, enlarged.

Index of Dates. See Blair's Tables.

Joyce's Scientific Dialogues. Completed to the present state of Knowledge, by Dr. Umffith. Numerous Woodcuts.

Knight's (Chas.) Knowledge is Power.

A Popular Manual of Political Economy.

Lectures on Painting. By the Royal Academicians. With introductory Essay, and Notes by R. Wornum, Esq. Portraits.

Mantell's (Dr.) Geological Excursions through the Isle of Wight and Dorsetshire. New Edition, by T. Rupert Jones, Esq. Numerous beautifully executed Woodcuts, and a Geological Map.

Medals of Creation ; or,

First Lessons in Geology and the Study of Organic Remains ; including Geological Excursions. New Edition, revised. Coloured Plates, and several hundred beautiful Woodcuts. In 2 vols.. Is. 6d. each.

■ Petrifactions and their

Teachings. An Illustrated Handbook to the Organic Remains In the British Museum. Numerous Engravings. 6*.

Wonders of Geology ; or, a

Familiar Exposition of Geological Phenomena. New Edition, augmented by T. Kupeut Jones, F.G.S. Coloured Geological Map of England, Plates, and nearly 200 beautiful Woodcuts. In 2 vols., 7*. 6<i. each.

Morphy's Games of Chess. Being the Matches and best Games played by the American Champion, with Explanatory and Analytical iSoteB, by J. Lowenthal. Portrait and Memoir.

It contains by far the largest collection of games played by Mr. Morphy extant in any form, and has received his endorsement and co-operation.

Oersted's Soul in Nature, &c. Portrait.

Eichardson's Geology, includUnj

Mineralogy and Paleontology. Revl=e and enlarged, by Dr. T. Wright. Upward of 400 Illustrations.

Schouw's Earth, Plants, and Man ; aa

Kohell's Sketches from the Mineral Kin? dom. Translated by A. Hekfret, F.K.r Coloured ifap of the Geography of Plants

Smith's (Pye) Geology and Scrip

ture ; or, The Relation between tL Scriptures and Geological Science .

Stanley's Classified Synopsis of tb Principal Painters of the Dutch mish Schools.

Staunton's Chess-play sr's Handbool

Numerous Diagrams.

Chess Praxis. A Supplemei

to the Chess-player's Handbook. Co; tainlng all the most important iriode> improvements in the Openings, lllustrat by actual Games ; a revised Code of- Che Laws; and a Selection of Mr. Morphy Games in England and France. 6s.

Chess-player's Companion

Comprising a new Treatise on Odds, C lection of Match Games, and a gelecti of Original Problems.

Chess Tournament of 185

Numerous Illustrations. Stockhardt's Principles of Cherai

try, exemplified In a series of simile ex;

rtments. Upwards of 270 Illustrat Agricultural Chemistry ; o

Chemical Field Lectures. Addressed Farmers. Translated, with Notes, 1 Professor Henfbey, F.R.S. To which added, a Paper on Liquid Manure, 1 J. J. Mechi, Esq.

Tire's (Dr. A.) Cotton Manufactui

of Great Britain, systematically invest gated ; with an introductory view of 1 comparative state in Foreign Countrii New Edition, revised and completed the present time, by P. L. Simmoklv. 0 hundred and fifty Illustrations. In 2 voi

Philosophy of Manufacturer

or, An Exposition of the Factory Syste of Great Britain. New Ed., continued to tl

XIII.

Bohn's Cheap Series.

Berber, The; or, The Mountaineer

of the Atlas. A Tale of Morocco, by W. S.

Boswell's Life of Johnson. Including bis Tour to the Hebrides, Tour in

. Wales, Ac. Edited, with large additions and Notes, by the Right Hon. J ohn Wiison Csoker. The second and most complete Copyright Edition, re-arranged and revised according to the suggestions of Lord Macaulay, by the late John Wright, Esq., with further additions by

Mr. Crokxr. Upivards of 46 fme B\ gravings on Steel. In 4 vols, cloth, 4 each, or 8 parts 2s. each.

»* The public has now for 16s. what was formerly published at 22.

Boswell's Johnsoniana. A Collectio of Miscellaneous Anecdotes and S i| of Dr. Samuel Johnson, gathe;- »

nearly a hundred publications. I to the preceding, of which it forms ml. I or parts 9 and 10. Engravings Stct

Cite this text

The Works of Philo Judaeus, volume 4. London, 1854 to 1855. Hermetic Cloud, https://hermeticcloud.com/library/yonge-works-of-philo-4/. Public-domain text reproduced in full; markup only.

Transcription

Machine-read text of the Internet Archive scan worksphilojudaeu04philuoft; the reading is uncorrected apart from the removal of page numbers, running heads, line-end hyphens and the scan's own marks.